A REVIEW OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE MONITORING IN A SOCIAL SERVICES CONTEXT: A PRIMER FOR CHILD PROTECTION WORKERS
Main Article Content
Keywords
Drug testing, hair, meconium, prenatal, toxicology, urine screen, infant, child, drug
Abstract
As drug abuse in our society escalates, child protection workers face mounting challenges in accurately assessing parental substance abuse in the interest of effective child protection. The impartial evaluation of substance use and abuse is fundamental, requiring objective and sensitive methods. A variety of biological specimens, some applicable to short-term and some to long-term monitoring, have been successful when applied to a child protection and drug abuse monitoring of caregivers. This article explores the complementary features of drug testing in urine, hair, and meconium, among other alternative matrices and discusses the practicality, basic science, and applicability of each to substance abuse monitoring in the context of child protection.
References
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3. Ostrea EM, Jr., Knapp DK, Tannenbaum L, Ostrea AR, Romero A, Salari V, Ager J. Estimates of illicit drug use during pregnancy by maternal interview, hair analysis, and meconium analysis. J Pediatr. 2001Mar;138(3):344-8.
4. Hall FS, Sora I, Uhl GR. Sex-dependent modulation of ethanol consumption in vesicular monoamine transporter 2 (VMAT2) and dopamine transporter (DAT) knockout mice. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003 Apr;28(4):620-8.
5. Onaivi ES, Leonard CM, Ishiguro H, Zhang PW, Lin Z, Akinshola BE, Uhl GR. Endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptor genetics. Prog Neurobiol. 2002 Apr;66(5):307-44.
6. Uhl GR, Liu QR, Walther D, Hess J, Naiman D. Polysubstance abuse-vulnerability genes: Genome scans for association, using 1,004 subjects and 1,494 single-nucleotide polymorphisms. Am J Hum Genet. 2001 Dec;69(6):1290-300.
7. Uhl GR, Liu QR, Naiman D. Substance abuse vulnerability loci: Converging genome scanning data. Trends Genet. 2002 Aug;18(8):420-5.
8. Pichini S, Altieri I, Zuccaro P, Pacifici R. Drug monitoring in nonconventional biological fluids and matrices. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1996 Mar;30(3):211-28.
9. Henderson GL, Harkey MR, Zhou C, Jones RT, Jacob P,3rd. Incorporation of isotopically labeled cocaine into human hair: Race as a factor. J Anal Toxicol. 1998 Mar-Apr;22(2):156-65.
10. Ciccarone D, Unick GJ, Kraus A. Impact of South American heroin on the U.S heroin market 1993- 2004. Int J Drug Policy. 2009 Feb 5
11. Darke S, Hall W, Weatherburn D, Lind B. Fluctuations in heroin purity and the incidence of fatal heroin overdose. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1999 Apr 1;54(2):155-61.
12. Ruttenber AJ, Luke JL. Heroin-related deaths: New epidemiologic insights. Science. 1984 Oct 5;226(4670):14-20.
13. Giraudon I, Bello PY. Monitoring ecstasy content in France: Results from the national surveillance system 1999-2004. Subst Use Misuse. 2007;42(10):1567-78.
14. Sherlock K, Wolff K, Hay AW, Conner M. Analysis of illicit ecstasy tablets: Implications for clinical management in the accident and emergency department. J Accid Emerg Med. 1999 May;16(3): 194-7.
15. Jenkins AJ, Cone EJ. Pharmacokinetics: Drug absorption, distribution and elimination In: Karch SB, editor. Drug Abuse Handbook. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press; 1998; p. 187.
16. Gray T, Huestis MA. Bioanalytical procedures for monitoring in utero drug exposure. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2007 Aug;388(7):1455-65.
17. Huestis MA, Oyler JM, Cone EJ, Wstadik AT, Schoendorfer D, Joseph RE Jr. Sweat testing for cocaine, codeine, and metabolites by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr. B Biomed.Sci.Appl. 1999; Oct 733(1-2) 247-64.
18. Chawarski MC, Fiellin DA, O'Connor PG, Bernard M, Schottenfeld RS. Utility of sweat patch testing for drug use monitoring in outpatient treatment for opiate dependence. J Subst Abuse Treat. 2007 Dec;33(4):411-5.
19. Uemura N, Nath RP, Harkey MR, Henderson GL, Mendelson J, Jones RT. Cocaine levels in sweat collection patches vary by location of patch placement and decline over time. J Anal Toxicol. 2004May-Jun;28(4):253-9.
20. Cone EJ, Weddington WW, Jr. Prolonged occurrence of cocaine in human saliva and urine after chronic use. J Anal Toxicol. 1989 Mar- Apr;13(2):65-8.
21. Kato K, Hillsgrove M, Weinhold L, Gorelick DA, Darwin WD, Cone EJ. Cocaine and metabolite excretion in saliva under stimulated and nonstimulated conditions. J Anal Toxicol. 1993 Oct;17(6): 338-41.
22. Thompson LK, Yousefnejad D, Kumor K, Sherer M, Cone EJ. Confirmation of cocaine in human saliva after intravenous use. J Anal Toxicol. 1987 Jan-Feb;11(1):36-8.
23. Speedy T, Baldwin D, Jowett G, Gallina M, Jehanli A. Development and validation of the cozart DDS oral fluid collection device. Forensic Sci Int. 2007 Aug 6;170(2-3):117-20.
24. Verstraete AG. Oral fluid testing for driving under the influence of drugs: History, recent progress and remaining challenges. Forensic Sci Int. 2005 Jun 10;150(2-3):143-50.
25. Drummer OH. Drug testing in oral fluid. Clin Biochem Rev. 2006 Aug;27(3):147-59.
26. Pil K, Verstraete A. Current developments in drug testing in oral fluid. Ther Drug Monit. 2008 Apr;30(2):196-202.
27. Halstead AC, Godolphin W, Lockitch G, Segal S. Timing of specimen collection is crucial in urine screening of drug dependent mothers and newborns. Clin Biochem. 1988 Jan;21(1):59-61.
28. Wolff K, Farrell M, Marsden J, Monteiro MG, Ali R, Welch S, Strang J. A review of biological indicators of illicit drug use, practical considerations and clinical usefulness. Addiction. 1999 Sep;94(9): 1279-98.
29. Fraser AD, Zamecnik J. Substance abuse monitoring by the correctional service of Canada. Ther DrugMonit. 2002 February;24(1):187-91.
30. Pragst F, Balikova MA. State of the art in hair analysis for detection of drug and alcohol abuse. Clin Chim Acta. 2006 Aug;370(1-2):17-49.
31. Henderson GL. Mechanisms of drug incorporation into hair. Forensic Sci Int. 1993 Dec;63(1-3):19- 29.
32. Mieczkowski T. Distinguishing passive contamination from active cocaine consumption: Assessing the occupational exposure of narcotics officers to cocaine. Forensic Sci Int. 1997 Jan 17;84 (1-3) :87-111.
33. Jurado C, Kintz P, Menendez M, Repetto M. Influence of the cosmetic treatment of hair on drug testing. Int J LegalMed. 1997;110(3):159-63.
34. Nakahara Y, Takahashi K, Kikura R. Hair analysis for drugs of abuse. X. effect of physicochemical properties of drugs on the incorporation rates into hair. Biol Pharm Bull. 1995 Sep;18(9):1223-7.
35. Cirimele V, Kintz P, Mangin P. Drug concentrations in human hair after bleaching. J Anal Toxicol. 1995 Sep;19(5):331-2.
36. Skopp G, Potsch L, Moeller MR. On cosmetically treated hair--aspects and pitfalls of interpretation. Forensic Sci Int. 1997 Jan 17;84(1-3):43-52.
37. Gareri J, Klein J, Koren G. Drugs of abuse testing in meconium. Clin Chim Acta. 2006 Apr;366(1- 2):101-11.
38. Ostrea EM Jr., Romero A, Knapp DK, Ostrea AR, Lucena JE, Utarnachitt RB. Postmortem drug analysis of meconium in early-gestation human fetuses exposed to cocaine: Clinical implications. J Pediatr. 1994Mar;124(3):477-9.
39. Moore C, Negrusz A, Lewis D. Determination of drugs of abuse in meconium. J Chromatogr B Biomed Sci Appl. 1998 Aug 21;713(1):137-46.
40. Kacinko SL, Jones HE, Johnson RE, Choo RE, Huestis MA. Correlations of maternal buprenorphine dose, buprenorphine, and metabolite concentrations in meconium with neonatal outcomes. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Nov;84(5):604-12.
41. Gourley GR, Kreamer B, Arend R. Excremental studies in human neonates. Identification of zinc coproporphyrin as a marker for meconium. Gastroenterology. 1990 Dec;99(6):1705-9.
42. Ostrea EM Jr., Parks PM, Brady MJ. Rapid isolation and detection of drugs in meconium of infants of drug-dependent mothers. Clin Chem. 1988 Nov;34(11):2372-3.
43. Verma A, Dhanireddy R. Time of first stool in extremely low birth weight (< or = 1000 grams) infants. J Pediatr. 1993 Apr;122(4):626-9.
44. Ostrea EM, Jr. Understanding drug testing in the neonate and the role of meconium analysis. J Perinat Neonatal Nurs. 2001 Mar;14(4):61,82; quiz 105-6.
45. Ebrahim SH, Gfroerer J. Pregnancy-related substance use in the United States during 1996- 1998. Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Feb;101(2):374-9.
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