ANALYSIS OF INFECTIOUS COMMUNICABLE AND NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN PAKISTAN: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
Main Article Content
Keywords
Infectious diseases, communicable, non-communicable diseases, outbreak, Pakistan
Abstract
With a population of approximately 241.49 million people, Pakistan faces challenges in providing quality healthcare due to the high incidence of both communicable and non-communicable diseases. Understanding the factors that contribute to the prevalence of communicable and noncommunicable diseases in Pakistan is the driving force behind this study. Secondary information was gathered from academic works published between 2017 and 2023 for this investigation. Springer Link, ScienceDirect, PubMed, Semantic Scholar, and Google Scholar were only few of the scholarly databases used to assemble the data for this review. The research is centered on both communicable and noncommunicable diseases that have an impact on human health. With an emphasis on epidemiological, socioeconomic, and healthcare system-related variables, this study provides a detailed evaluation of the occurrence and effect of several diseases in Pakistan. Several variables were discovered to contribute to the country's high sensitivity to infectious disease epidemics. These included the high population density in metropolitan areas, poor water quality, inadequate sanitary infrastructure, unfavorable socioeconomic situations, and low immunization rates. A lack of a comprehensive surveillance plan and technology has hindered the successful management of infectious disease epidemics. Both diseases require urgently needed targeted medications.
References
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31. Garira W., Mathebula D. A coupled multiscale model to guide malaria control and elimination. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 2019;475:34–59.
32. Gul, H., Birmani, N. A., Shaikh, A. M., & Anjum, S. (2019). New species of genus Subulura molin, 1960 (Nematoda: subuluridae) from poultry bird Gallus domestics of district Khairpur, Sindh, Pakistan. Int. J. Fauna Bio. Stud., 6(2), 07-11.
33. Habib, S. H., & Saha, S. (2010). Burden of non-communicable disease: global overview. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews, 4(1), 41-47.
34. Hou, C., & Wang, Q. (2023). The influence of an appropriate reporting time and publicity intensity on the spread of infectious diseases. AIMS mathematics, 8(10), 23578-23602.
35. Ittefaq, M., Baines, A., Abwao, M., Shah, S. F. A., & Ramzan, T. (2021). "Does Pakistan still have polio cases?": Exploring discussions on polio and polio vaccine in online news comments in Pakistan. Vaccine, 39(3), 480-486.
36. Jafar, T. H., Levey, A. S., Jafary, F. H., White, F., Gul, A., Rahbar, M. H., ... & Chaturvedi, N. (2003). Ethnic subgroup differences in hypertension in Pakistan. Journal of hypertension, 21(5), 905-912.
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41. Lipp, E. K., Huq, A., & Colwell, R. R. (2002). Effects of global climate on infectious disease: the cholera model. Clinical microbiology reviews, 15(4), 757-770.
42. Lopez, A. D., Mathers, C. D., Ezzati, M., Jamison, D. T., & Murray, C. J. (2006). Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. The lancet, 367(9524), 1747-1757.
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44. Manlove, K., Wilber, M., White, L., Bastille‐Rousseau, G., Yang, A., Gilbertson, M. L., ... & Pepin, K. M. (2022). Defining an epidemiological landscape that connects movement ecology to pathogen transmission and pace‐of‐life. Ecology letters, 25(8), 1760-1782.
45. Masresha, B. G., Luce Jr, R., Weldegebriel, G., Katsande, R., Gasasira, A., & Mihigo, R. (2020). The impact of a prolonged ebola outbreak on measles elimination activities in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone, 2014-2015. The Pan African Medical Journal, 35(Suppl 1).
46. Murakami, H., Kobayashi, M., Hachiya, M., Khan, Z. S., Hassan, S. Q., & Sakurada, S. (2014). Refusal of oral polio vaccine in northwestern Pakistan: a qualitative and quantitative study. Vaccine, 32(12), 1382-1387.
47. Nanyingi, M. O., Munyua, P., Kiama, S. G., Muchemi, G. M., Thumbi, S. M., Bitek, A. O., ... & Njenga, M. K. (2015). A systematic review of Rift Valley Fever epidemiology 1931–2014. Infection ecology & epidemiology, 5(1), 28024.
48. Nichter, M. (1995). Vaccinations in the Third World: a consideration of community demand. Social science & medicine, 41(5), 617-632.
49. Qiao, J., Lin, X., Wu, Y., Huang, X., Pan, X., Xu, J., ... & Shan, P. F. (2022). Global burden of non‐communicable diseases attributable to dietary risks in 1990–2019. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 35(1), 202-213.
50. Rajati, F., Hamzeh, B., Pasdar, Y., Safari, R., Moradinazar, M., Shakiba, E., ... & Najafi, F. (2019). Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension and their determinants: Results from the first cohort of non-communicable diseases in a Kurdish settlement. Scientific reports, 9(1), 12409.
51. Rana, M. S., Usman, M., Alam, M. M., Ikram, A., Salman, M., & Umair, M. (2022). The world's largest measles-Rubella vaccination campaign in Pakistan: time to invest in routine immunization. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 18(5), 2080444.
52. Ruthsatz, M., & Candeias, V. (2020). Non-communicable disease prevention, nutrition and aging. Acta Bio Medica: Atenei Parmensis, 91(2), 379.
53. Saha, R., Nath, A., Sharma, N., Badhan, S. K., & Ingle, G. K. (2007). Changing profile of disease contributing to mortality in a resettlement colony of Delhi. National Medical Journal of India, 20(3), 125.
54. Singh, R. B., Bajaj, S., Niaz, M. A., Rastogi, S. S., & Moshiri, M. (1998). Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of hypertension and coronary artery disease in rural and urban population with low rates of obesity. International journal of cardiology, 66(1), 65-72.
55. Stacey, D., Légaré, F., Lewis, K., Barry, M. J., Bennett, C. L., Eden, K. B., ... & Trevena, L. (2017). Decision aids for people facing health treatment or screening decisions. Cochrane database of systematic reviews, (4).
56. UNICEF. 2018. UNICEF Handbook on Water Quality. New York: UN Plaza, 118 - 119.
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58. Walker, M. J., Barnett, T. C., McArthur, J. D., Cole, J. N., Gillen, C. M., Henningham, A., ... & Nizet, V. (2014). Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of group A Streptococcus. Clinical microbiology reviews, 27(2), 264-301.
59. Yu, E., Malik, V. S., & Hu, F. B. (2018). Cardiovascular disease prevention by diet modification: JACC health promotion series. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 72(8), 914-926.
60. Zahid, J. (2018). Impact of clean drinking water and sanitation on water borne diseases in Pakistan.
61. Laddu, D. R., Lavie, C. J., Phillips, S. A., & Arena, R. (2021). Physical activity for immunity protection: Inoculating populations with healthy living medicine in preparation for the next pandemic. Progress in cardiovascular diseases, 64, 102.
2. Abegunde, D. O., Mathers, C. D., Adam, T., Ortegon, M., & Strong, K. (2007). The burden and costs of chronic diseases in low-income and middle-income countries. The Lancet, 370(9603), 1929-1938.
3. Ahmad, T., Khan, M., Musa, T. H., & Hui, J. (2020). Polio vaccination campaign in Pakistan: a step towards eradication or still a challenge in hand?. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics, 16(6), 1444-1445.
4. Allan, M., Lièvre, M., Laurenson-Schafer, H., de Barros, S., Jinnai, Y., Andrews, S., ... & Fitzner, J. (2022). The World Health Organization COVID-19 surveillance database. International journal for equity in health, 21(Suppl 3), 167.
5. Allen, L. N., Nicholson, B. D., Yeung, B. Y., & Goiana-da-Silva, F. (2020). Implementation of non-communicable disease policies: a geopolitical analysis of 151 countries. The Lancet Global Health, 8(1), e50-e58.
6. Ali, I. (2020a). Constructing and negotiating measles: the case of Sindh Province of Pakistan. Vienna: University of Vienna.
7. Ali, I. (2022b). Impacts of rumors and conspiracy theories surrounding COVID-19 on preparedness programs. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 16(1), 310-315.
8. Ali, I. (2020). COVID-19: are we ready for the second wave?. Disaster medicine and public health preparedness, 14(5), e16-e18.
9. Ali, I., Sadique, S., & Ali, S. (2021). COVID-19 and vaccination campaigns as "western plots" in Pakistan: government policies,(geo-) politics, local perceptions, and beliefs. Frontiers in Sociology, 6, 608979.
10. Arksey, H., & O'Malley, L. (2005). Scoping studies: towards a methodological framework. International journal of social research methodology, 8(1), 19-32.
11. Barber, N. C., & Stark, L. A. (2015). Online resources for understanding outbreaks and infectious diseases. CBE—Life Sciences Education, 14(1), fe1.
12. Beaglehole, R., Bonita, R., Horton, R., Adams, C., Alleyne, G., Asaria, P., ... & Watt, J. (2011). Priority actions for the non-communicable disease crisis. The lancet, 377(9775), 1438-1447.
13. Bedford, J., Farrar, J., Ihekweazu, C., Kang, G., Koopmans, M., & Nkengasong, J. (2019). A new twenty-first century science for effective epidemic response. Nature, 575(7781), 130-136.
14. Birmani, N. A., Buriro, S. A., Shaikh, A. M., & Dharejo, A. M. (2016). A new Notocotylid trematode Paramonostomum bagoderoi n. sp.(Trematoda: Notocotylidae) in Mallard Anas platyrhynchos (Anseriformes: Anatidae) in Sindh, Pakistan. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences, 3, 130-135.
15. Bloom, D. E., & Cadarette, D. (2019). Infectious disease threats in the twenty-first century: strengthening the global response. Frontiers in immunology, 10, 549.
16. Boutayeb, A. (2006). The double burden of communicable and non-communicable diseases in developing countries. Transactions of the Royal society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 100(3), 191-199.
17. Boutayeb, A. (2023). Social determinants of health and adolescent childbearing in WHO Eastern Mediterranean countries. International Journal for Equity in Health, 22(1), 1-11.
18. Budreviciute, A., Damiati, S., Sabir, D. K., Onder, K., Schuller-Goetzburg, P., Plakys, G., ... & Kodzius, R. (2020). Management and prevention strategies for non-communicable diseases (NCDs) and their risk factors. Frontiers in public health, 8, 788.
19. Buriro, S.A., Chandio, I., Gul, H. and Bushra, A., 2017. A review on cutaneous leishmaniasis in Sindh province, Pakistan.
20. Buriro, S. A., Birman, N. A., & Shaikh, A. M. (2020). 96. New trematode Psilochasmus platyrhynchosi (Trematode: Psilochasmidae) from Mallard Anas platyrhynchos (Anseriformes: Anatidae) in Sindh province of Pakistan. Pure and Applied Biology (PAB), 9(1), 1025-1030.
21. Buriro, S. A., Birmani, N. A., Shaikh, A. M., & Dharejo, A. M. (2016). Two digenetic trematodes with description of a new species from Anas platyrhynchos (Anseriformes: Anatidae) in Sindh, Pakistan.
22. Cena, H., & Calder, P. C. (2020). Defining a healthy diet: evidence for the role of contemporary dietary patterns in health and disease. Nutrients, 12(2), 334.
23. Coates, M. M., Kintu, A., Gupta, N., Wroe, E. B., Adler, A. J., Kwan, G. F., ... & Bukhman, G. (2020). Burden of non-communicable diseases from infectious causes in 2017: a modelling study. The Lancet Global Health, 8(12), e1489-e1498.
24. Craft, M. E. (2015). Infectious disease transmission and contact networks in wildlife and livestock. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 370(1669), 20140107.
25. Degenhardt, L., Whiteford, H. A., Ferrari, A. J., Baxter, A. J., Charlson, F. J., Hall, W. D., ... & Vos, T. (2013). Global burden of disease attributable to illicit drug use and dependence: findings from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The Lancet, 382(9904), 1564-1574.
26. Devi, R., Kanitkar, K., Narendhar, R., Sehmi, K., & Subramaniam, K. (2020). A narrative review of the patient journey through the lens of non-communicable diseases in low-and middle-income countries. Advances in Therapy, 37(12), 4808-4830.
27. Donatelle, R. J. (2019). Health the basics. Pearson.
28. Duesberg, P. H. (1991). AIDS epidemiology: inconsistencies with human immunodeficiency virus and with infectious disease. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 88(4), 1575-1579.
29. End polio Pakistan. Polio cases in provinces 2022. http://www.endpolio.com.pk/polioin-pakistan/polio-cases-in-provinces.
30. Feldman‐Savelsberg, P., Ndonko, F. T., & Schmidt‐Ehry, B. (2000). Sterilizing vaccines or the politics of the womb: retrospective study of a rumor in Cameroon. Medical anthropology quarterly, 14(2), 159-179.
31. Garira W., Mathebula D. A coupled multiscale model to guide malaria control and elimination. Journal of Theoretical Biology. 2019;475:34–59.
32. Gul, H., Birmani, N. A., Shaikh, A. M., & Anjum, S. (2019). New species of genus Subulura molin, 1960 (Nematoda: subuluridae) from poultry bird Gallus domestics of district Khairpur, Sindh, Pakistan. Int. J. Fauna Bio. Stud., 6(2), 07-11.
33. Habib, S. H., & Saha, S. (2010). Burden of non-communicable disease: global overview. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews, 4(1), 41-47.
34. Hou, C., & Wang, Q. (2023). The influence of an appropriate reporting time and publicity intensity on the spread of infectious diseases. AIMS mathematics, 8(10), 23578-23602.
35. Ittefaq, M., Baines, A., Abwao, M., Shah, S. F. A., & Ramzan, T. (2021). "Does Pakistan still have polio cases?": Exploring discussions on polio and polio vaccine in online news comments in Pakistan. Vaccine, 39(3), 480-486.
36. Jafar, T. H., Levey, A. S., Jafary, F. H., White, F., Gul, A., Rahbar, M. H., ... & Chaturvedi, N. (2003). Ethnic subgroup differences in hypertension in Pakistan. Journal of hypertension, 21(5), 905-912.
37. Kabir, M., & Afzal, M. S. (2016). Epidemiology of polio virus infection in Pakistan and possible risk factors for its transmission. Asian Pacific journal of tropical medicine, 9(11), 1044-1047.
38. Levac, D., Colquhoun, H., & O'Brien, K. K. (2010). Scoping studies: advancing the methodology. Implementation science, 5, 1-9.
39. Lim, S. S., Vos, T., Flaxman, A. D., Danaei, G., Shibuya, K., Adair-Rohani, H., ... & Pelizzari, P. M. (2012). A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. The lancet, 380(9859), 2224-2260.
40. Lim, S. S., Stein, D. B., Charrow, A., & Murray, C. J. (2008). Tracking progress towards universal childhood immunisation and the impact of global initiatives: a systematic analysis of three-dose diphtheria, Tetanus, and pertussis immunisation coverage. The Lancet, 372(9655), 2031-2046.
41. Lipp, E. K., Huq, A., & Colwell, R. R. (2002). Effects of global climate on infectious disease: the cholera model. Clinical microbiology reviews, 15(4), 757-770.
42. Lopez, A. D., Mathers, C. D., Ezzati, M., Jamison, D. T., & Murray, C. J. (2006). Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. The lancet, 367(9524), 1747-1757.
43. Lund, H. G., Birmani, N. A., Shaikh, A. M., & Buriro, S. A. (2017). A new species of genus Cotugnia Diamare (Cestoda: Davaineidae, Fuhrmann 1907) from domestic fowl (Gallus domesticus) of district Khairpur, Sindh, Pakistan. J. Ent. Zool. Stud., 5(5), 1827-1830.
44. Manlove, K., Wilber, M., White, L., Bastille‐Rousseau, G., Yang, A., Gilbertson, M. L., ... & Pepin, K. M. (2022). Defining an epidemiological landscape that connects movement ecology to pathogen transmission and pace‐of‐life. Ecology letters, 25(8), 1760-1782.
45. Masresha, B. G., Luce Jr, R., Weldegebriel, G., Katsande, R., Gasasira, A., & Mihigo, R. (2020). The impact of a prolonged ebola outbreak on measles elimination activities in Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone, 2014-2015. The Pan African Medical Journal, 35(Suppl 1).
46. Murakami, H., Kobayashi, M., Hachiya, M., Khan, Z. S., Hassan, S. Q., & Sakurada, S. (2014). Refusal of oral polio vaccine in northwestern Pakistan: a qualitative and quantitative study. Vaccine, 32(12), 1382-1387.
47. Nanyingi, M. O., Munyua, P., Kiama, S. G., Muchemi, G. M., Thumbi, S. M., Bitek, A. O., ... & Njenga, M. K. (2015). A systematic review of Rift Valley Fever epidemiology 1931–2014. Infection ecology & epidemiology, 5(1), 28024.
48. Nichter, M. (1995). Vaccinations in the Third World: a consideration of community demand. Social science & medicine, 41(5), 617-632.
49. Qiao, J., Lin, X., Wu, Y., Huang, X., Pan, X., Xu, J., ... & Shan, P. F. (2022). Global burden of non‐communicable diseases attributable to dietary risks in 1990–2019. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics, 35(1), 202-213.
50. Rajati, F., Hamzeh, B., Pasdar, Y., Safari, R., Moradinazar, M., Shakiba, E., ... & Najafi, F. (2019). Prevalence, awareness, treatment, and control of hypertension and their determinants: Results from the first cohort of non-communicable diseases in a Kurdish settlement. Scientific reports, 9(1), 12409.
51. Rana, M. S., Usman, M., Alam, M. M., Ikram, A., Salman, M., & Umair, M. (2022). The world's largest measles-Rubella vaccination campaign in Pakistan: time to invest in routine immunization. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 18(5), 2080444.
52. Ruthsatz, M., & Candeias, V. (2020). Non-communicable disease prevention, nutrition and aging. Acta Bio Medica: Atenei Parmensis, 91(2), 379.
53. Saha, R., Nath, A., Sharma, N., Badhan, S. K., & Ingle, G. K. (2007). Changing profile of disease contributing to mortality in a resettlement colony of Delhi. National Medical Journal of India, 20(3), 125.
54. Singh, R. B., Bajaj, S., Niaz, M. A., Rastogi, S. S., & Moshiri, M. (1998). Prevalence of type 2 diabetes mellitus and risk of hypertension and coronary artery disease in rural and urban population with low rates of obesity. International journal of cardiology, 66(1), 65-72.
55. Stacey, D., Légaré, F., Lewis, K., Barry, M. J., Bennett, C. L., Eden, K. B., ... & Trevena, L. (2017). Decision aids for people facing health treatment or screening decisions. Cochrane database of systematic reviews, (4).
56. UNICEF. 2018. UNICEF Handbook on Water Quality. New York: UN Plaza, 118 - 119.
57. https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/noncommunicable-diseases.
58. Walker, M. J., Barnett, T. C., McArthur, J. D., Cole, J. N., Gillen, C. M., Henningham, A., ... & Nizet, V. (2014). Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of group A Streptococcus. Clinical microbiology reviews, 27(2), 264-301.
59. Yu, E., Malik, V. S., & Hu, F. B. (2018). Cardiovascular disease prevention by diet modification: JACC health promotion series. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 72(8), 914-926.
60. Zahid, J. (2018). Impact of clean drinking water and sanitation on water borne diseases in Pakistan.
61. Laddu, D. R., Lavie, C. J., Phillips, S. A., & Arena, R. (2021). Physical activity for immunity protection: Inoculating populations with healthy living medicine in preparation for the next pandemic. Progress in cardiovascular diseases, 64, 102.
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Nov 17, 2023
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Saeeda Anjum Buriro, Sultan Muhammad, Major Munnaza Parveen Rtd, Husan Bano Channar, Shakeel Ahmed Memon, & Irshad Chandio. (2023). ANALYSIS OF INFECTIOUS COMMUNICABLE AND NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES IN PAKISTAN: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 30(18), 2207–2217. https://doi.org/10.53555/jptcp.v30i18.3427
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Author Biographies
Saeeda Anjum Buriro
PhD Scholar University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan
Sultan Muhammad
Assistant Professor Sohail University
Major Munnaza Parveen Rtd
Assistant Professor Sohail University
Husan Bano Channar
Assistant Professor Peoples’ Nursing School Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences Jamshoro
Shakeel Ahmed Memon
Assistant Professor, Department of Zoology Government College University Hyderabad, Sindh Pakistan
Irshad Chandio
PhD Scholar University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan