THE MULTIFACETED BURDEN OF DEPRESSION: EXPLORING CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENTS
Main Article Content
Keywords
Epidemiology, Diagnostic Criteria, Pharmacological Treatments, Psychotherapy, Emerging Treatments, Public Health Initiatives
Abstract
Depression, a pervasive and debilitating mental health disorder, affects millions of individuals worldwide, cutting across age, gender, and socioeconomic boundaries. The review begins with an overview of the global prevalence and incidence of depression, highlighting demographic variations and the significant impact of recent global events, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, on mental health. It then systematically examines the clinical definitions and classifications of depression, including major depressive disorder, dysthymia, and other subtypes, guided by diagnostic criteria from DSM-5 and ICD-11. The multifactorial etiology of depression is dissected into biological, psychological, and environmental contributors, emphasizing the interplay of genetic predispositions, neurotransmitter imbalances, cognitive theories, personality traits, and socio-environmental stressors. The review further explores the extensive spectrum of depression's impact, from emotional and psychological disturbances to physical symptoms and functional impairments in daily life, relationships, and comorbid mental health conditions. The challenges in diagnosing depression, the critical role of clinical interviews, psychometric tools, and the importance of distinguishing depression from other disorders are addressed. Treatment approaches are comprehensively analyzed, encompassing pharmacological therapies, psychotherapy, lifestyle interventions, complementary and alternative therapies, and emerging treatments such as ketamine therapy, TMS, and psychedelics. The review also discusses the pervasive challenges in treating depression, including stigma, accessibility, treatment adherence, and the risk of relapse. This extensive exploration underscores the need for a nuanced understanding of depression and a multifaceted approach to its treatment, paving the way for more effective, personalized, and accessible mental health care.
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9. Magnusson A, Boivin D. Seasonal affective disorder: an overview. Chronobiology international. 2003 Jan 1;20(2):189-207.
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16. Stewart DE, Vigod S. Postpartum depression. New England Journal of Medicine. 2016 Dec 1;375(22):2177-86.
17. Melrose S. Seasonal affective disorder: an overview of assessment and treatment approaches. Depression research and treatment. 2015;2015(1):178564.
18. Itriyeva K. Premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder in adolescents. Current problems in pediatric and adolescent health care. 2022 May 1;52(5):101187.
19. Dubovsky SL, Ghosh BM, Serotte JC, Cranwell V. Psychotic depression: diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and treatment. Psychotherapy and psychosomatics. 2021 Apr 20;90(3):160-77.
20. Angst J, Gamma A, Benazzi F, Silverstein B, Ajdacic–Gross V, Eich D, Rössler W. Atypical depressive syndromes in varying definitions. European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience. 2006 Feb;256:44-54.
21. Tennant C. Life events, stress and depression: a review of recent findings. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 2002 Apr;36(2):173-82.
22. Rao U. DSM-5: disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. Asian Journal of Psychiatry. 2014 Oct 1;11:119-23.
23. Thapar A, Rice F. Twin studies in pediatric depression. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics. 2006 Oct 1;15(4):869-81.
24. Moret C, Briley M. The importance of norepinephrine in depression. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment. 2011 May 31;7(sup1):9-13.
25. Gądek-Michalska A, Spyrka J, Rachwalska P, Tadeusz J, Bugajski J. Influence of chronic stress on brain corticosteroid receptors and HPA axis activity. Pharmacological Reports. 2013 Sep 1;65(5):1163-75.
26. Mercan N, Bulut M, Yüksel Ç. Investigation of the relatedness of cognitive distortions with emotional expression, anxiety, and depression. Current Psychology. 2023 Jan;42(3):2176-85.
27. Borja SE, Callahan JL, Rambo PL. Understanding negative outcomes following traumatic exposure: The roles of neuroticism and social support. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy. 2009 Jun;1(2):118.
28. Dye H. The impact and long-term effects of childhood trauma. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. 2018 Apr 3;28(3):381-92.
29. Inglis G, Jenkins P, McHardy F, Sosu E, Wilson C. Poverty stigma, mental health, and well‐being: A rapid review and synthesis of quantitative and qualitative research. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology. 2023 Jul;33(4):783-806.
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31. Lieberman A. Counseling issues: Addressing behavioral and emotional considerations in the treatment of communication disorders. American journal of speech-language pathology. 2018 Feb 6;27(1):13-23.
32. Chiesa V, Antony G, Wismar M, Rechel B. COVID-19 pandemic: health impact of staying at home, social distancing and ‘lockdown’measures—a systematic review of systematic reviews. Journal of public health. 2021 Sep;43(3):e462-81.
33. García-Bueno B, Caso JR, Leza JC. Stress as a neuroinflammatory condition in brain: damaging and protective mechanisms. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews. 2008 Aug 1;32(6):1136-51.
34. Lakhera KP. Anxiety-A theoretical analysis. Quest-The Journal of UGC-HRDC Nainital. 2018;12(3):241-6.
35. Rogers PJ, Smit HJ. Food craving and food “addiction”: a critical review of the evidence from a biopsychosocial perspective. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 2000 May 1;66(1):3-14.
36. Biordi DL, Nicholson NR. Social isolation. Chronic illness: Impact and intervention. 2013:97-132.
37. Bodenmann G, Meuwly N, Germann J, Nussbeck FW, Heinrichs M, Bradbury TN. Effects of stress on the social support provided by men and women in intimate relationships. Psychological science. 2015 Oct;26(10):1584-94.
38. Brady KT, Killeen TK, Brewerton T, Lucerini S. Comorbidity of psychiatric disorders and posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of clinical psychiatry. 2000 Jan 1;61:22-32.
39. Williams Jr JW, Noël PH, Cordes JA, Ramirez G, Pignone M. Is this patient clinically depressed?. Jama. 2002 Mar 6;287(9):1160-70.
40. Löwe B, Unützer J, Callahan CM, Perkins AJ, Kroenke K. Monitoring depression treatment outcomes with the patient health questionnaire-9. Medical care. 2004 Dec 1;42(12):1194-201.
41. Wang YP, Gorenstein C. Psychometric properties of the Beck Depression Inventory-II: a comprehensive review. Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry. 2013 Oct;35:416-31.
42. Kendell R, Jablensky A. Distinguishing between the validity and utility of psychiatric diagnoses. American journal of psychiatry. 2003 Jan 1;160(1):4-12.
43. Radell ML, Hamza EA, Moustafa AA. Depression in post-traumatic stress disorder. Reviews in the Neurosciences. 2020 Oct 25;31(7):703-22.
44. Iqbal MN, Levin CJ, Levin FR. Treatment for substance use disorder with co-occurring mental illness. FOCUS, A Journal of the American Psychiatric Association. 2019 Apr;17(2):88-97.
45. Clark LA, Cuthbert B, Lewis-Fernández R, Narrow WE, Reed GM. Three approaches to understanding and classifying mental disorder: ICD-11, DSM-5, and the National Institute of Mental Health’s Research Domain Criteria (RDoC). Psychological Science in the Public Interest. 2017 Nov;18(2):72-145.
46. Suhr J, Wei C. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder as an illness identity: Implications for neuropsychological practice. InNeuropsychological evaluation of somatoform and other functional somatic conditions 2017 Mar 16 (pp. 251-273). Routledge.
47. Kumar KS, Srivastava S, Paswan S, Dutta AS. Depression-symptoms, causes, medications and therapies. The Pharma Innovation. 2012 May 1;1(3, Part A):37.
48. Fusco GM, Apsche J. Cognitive behavioral therapy. Comparative treatments for borderline personality disorder. 2005:75-104.
49. Briguglio M, Vitale JA, Galentino R, Banfi G, Zanaboni Dina C, Bona A, Panzica G, Porta M, Dell’Osso B, Glick ID. Healthy eating, physical activity, and sleep hygiene (HEPAS) as the winning triad for sustaining physical and mental health in patients at risk for or with neuropsychiatric disorders: considerations for clinical practice. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment. 2020 Jan 8:55-70.
50. Matos LC, Machado JP, Monteiro FJ, Greten HJ. Understanding traditional Chinese medicine therapeutics: an overview of the basics and clinical applications. InHealthcare 2021 Mar 1 (Vol. 9, No. 3, p. 257). MDPI.
51. Shanok NA, Muzac S, Brown L, Barrera M, Rodriguez R. Synergistic use of deep TMS therapy with IV ketamine infusions for major depressive disorder: a pilot study. Psychopharmacology. 2024 Mar 12:1-7.
52. Nierenberg AA, Ostacher MJ, Huffman JC, Ametrano RM, Fava M, Perlis RH. A brief review of antidepressant efficacy, effectiveness, indications, and usage for major depressive disorder. Journal of occupational and environmental medicine. 2008 Apr 1;50(4):428-36.
53. Kurian BT, Greer TL, Trivedi MH. Strategies to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of antidepressants: targeting residual symptoms. Expert review of neurotherapeutics. 2009 Jul 1;9(7):975-84.
54. Philip NS, Carpenter LL, Tyrka AR, Price LH. Augmentation of antidepressants with atypical antipsychotics: a review of the current literature. Journal of Psychiatric Practice®. 2008 Jan 1;14(1):34-44.
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Sep 6, 2024
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THE MULTIFACETED BURDEN OF DEPRESSION: EXPLORING CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENTS. (2024). Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(9), 346-368. https://doi.org/10.53555/71zvms83
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Author Biographies
Dr. Navinder Singh
BM College of Pharmacy, Gurgaon, Haryana, India-122506
Hemlata
Rajendera Institute of Technology Science, Sirsa, Haryana, India-125055
Lalit Sharma
BM College of Pharmacy, Gurgaon, Haryana, India-122506
Rajnikant Yadav
BM College of Pharmacy, Gurgaon, Haryana, India-122506
Anoop
BM College of Pharmacy, Gurgaon, Haryana, India-122506
How to Cite
THE MULTIFACETED BURDEN OF DEPRESSION: EXPLORING CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, AND TREATMENTS. (2024). Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(9), 346-368. https://doi.org/10.53555/71zvms83