SURROGACY AS A ‘WOMB-ON-HIRE’: A RELIGIOUS ANALYSIS OF ITS APPROACH TO INFERTILITY
Main Article Content
Keywords
Surrogacy, Infertility, Socioeconomic Impacts, Surrogate Mother, Religious Perspective
Abstract
The human instinct to reproduce has been fundamental since ancient times, and infertility has far-reaching emotional, social, economic, and cultural implications. The contemporary world is witnessing a reproductive revolution, with alternative modes of reproduction gaining acceptance. Surrogacy, a method involving the implantation of sperm in the ovum in the uterus of a surrogate mother, has emerged as one such alternative. While this arrangement offers benefits, it also has profound social, economic, and religious implications. This article critically examines the convergence of social, cultural, and religious aspects of surrogacy, particularly within the framework of Islamic injunctions. It argues that the widespread use of surrogacy can erode moral standards, foster economic malice, violate basic human rights, and directly contradict religious and moral injunctions. The article aims to raise awareness of pressing issues and emphasizes the need for future research to pave the way for collaborative religious studies.
References
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46. Serour, G. (2008). Islamic perspectives in human reproduction. Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 17(SUPPL. 3), 34–38.
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2. Al-Mukarramah, Q. al-M. al-F. al-I. bi-M. (2004). No Title. Mecca: Al-Majmaʿ Al-Fiqhī Al-Islāmī, 148(54).
3. J.-J. of I. B., & 2016, undefined. (2016). Regulating the Trade of Commercial Surrogacy in India. Scholarlycommons.Law.Hofstra.Edu, 15(2), 12. Retrieved from
4. https://scholarlycommons.law.hofstra.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1298&context=jibl
5. Aramesh, K. (2009). Iran’s experience with surrogate motherhood: an Islamic view and ethical concerns. Journal of Medical Ethics, 35(5), 320–322. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2008.027763
6. Atighetchi, D. (2007). Islamic bioethics: problems and perspectives (Vol. 31). Springer.
7. Barbre, J. K. (2007). Magical Progeny, Modern Technology: A Hindu Bioethics of Assisted Reproductive Technology. By Swasti Bhattacharyya, 161 pp. Journal of Religion and Health, 46(2), 339–340. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10943-007-9111-8
8. Bokek-Cohen, Y., & Tarabeih, M. (2021). What do Sunni Muslims think about religiously forbidden reproductive options? Human Fertility.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14647273.2021.1921289
9. Brinsden, P. R. (2003). Gestational surrogacy. Human Reproduction Update, 9(5), 483–491. https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmg033
10. Cherry, A. L. (2000). Nurturing in the service of white culture: Racial subordination, gestational surrogacy, and the ideology of motherhood. Tex. J. Women & L., 10, 83.
11. Christina Weis. (2015, December 15). Workers or mothers? The business of surrogacy in Russia openDemocracy. Retrieved November 20, 2021, from
https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/beyond-
12. trafficking-and-slavery/workers-or-mothers-business-of-surrogacy-in-russia/
13. Domar, A. D., Penzias, A., Dusek, J. A., Magna, A., Merarim, D., Nielsen, B., & Paul, D. (2005). The stress and distress of infertility: Does religion help women cope? Sexuality, Reproduction and Menopause, 3(2), 45–51.
14. Features of Islamic Bioethics. (2007), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4962-0_2
15. FEDERAL MAGISTRATES COURT OF AUSTRALIA. (2012, September). Intercountry Surrogacy – A new form of trafficking? Retrieved from
http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/FedJSchol/2012/15.pdf
16. Federal Shariat Court. Original jurisdiction about Surrogacy in the Federal Shariat Court (2015).
17. Retrieved from https://www.federalshariatcourt.gov.pk/Judgments/Sh.Petition No.2-I of 2015.pdf
18. Fischer, S., Psychiatry, I. G.-, & 1991, undefined. (2016). Surrogate motherhood: attachment, attitudes and social support. Taylor & Francis, 54(1), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/00332747.1991.11024527
19. Gürtin, Z. B., Inhorn, M. C., & Tremayne, S. (2015a). Islam and assisted reproduction in the middle east: Comparing the sunni arab world, shia iran and secular Turkey. The Changing World Religion Map: Sacred Places, Identities, Practices and Politics, 3137–3153. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9376-6_165
20. Gürtin, Z. B., Inhorn, M. C., & Tremayne, S. (2015b). Islam and assisted reproduction in the middle east: Comparing the sunni arab world, shia iran and secular Turkey. The Changing World Religion Map: Sacred Places, Identities, Practices and Politics, 3137–3153. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9376-6_165
21. Health, A. S.-C. M. I. R., & 2017, undefined. (2017). Protection for children born through assisted reproductive technologies act, BE 2558: The changing profile of surrogacy in Thailand. Journals.Sagepub.Com, 11, 117955811774960. https://doi.org/10.1177/1179558117749603
22. Hibino, Y. (2020). Non-commercial Surrogacy in Thailand: Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications in Local and Global Contexts. Asian Bioethics Review, 12(2), 135–147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41649-020-00126-2
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24. Human trafficking suspected in Thai nine-baby discovery | The Japan Times. (n.d.). Retrieved November 20, 2021, from https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/08/07/national/thai-lawyer-claims-nine-babies-surrogate-kids-japanese-father/
25. Husain, F. A. (2000). Reproductive issues from the Islamic perspective. Human Fertility, 3(2), 124–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/1464727002000198831
26. “India is surrogacy capital of world.” (n.d.). Retrieved November 20, 2021, from http://www.uniindia.com/-india-is-surrogacy-capital-of-world/states/news/1127429.html
27. Inhorn, M. C. (2011). Globalization and gametes: Reproductive “tourism,” Islamic bioethics, and Middle Eastern modernity. Anthropology and Medicine, 18(1), 87–103.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13648470.2010.525876
28. Inhorn, M. C., & Tremayne, S. (2016). Islam, Assisted Reproduction, and the Bioethical Aftermath. Journal of Religion and Health, 55(2), 422–430. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10943-015-0151-1
29. IVF Turkey | Fertility Treatment in Turkey | IVF Laws. (n.d.). Retrieved November 20, 2021, from https://www.fertilityclinicsabroad.com/ivf-abroad/ivf-turkey/
30. Jesús i Maria. (2020). Surrogate pregnancy: an analysis of the current situation. Barcelona. Retrieved from www.fundaciogrifols.org
31. Journal, D. Z.-T. A., & 2021, undefined. (2021). In/Voluntary Surrogacy in Genesis. Place.Asburyseminary.Edu, 76(1), 9–24. https://doi.org/10.7252/Journal.01.2021S.02
32. Kahn, S. M. (2000). Reproducing Jews. Duke University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1215/9780822378204 Khan, M. A. Z., & Konje, J. C. (2019).
33. Ethical and religious dilemmas of modern reproductive choices and the Islamic perspective. European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 232, 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.EJOGRB.2018.10.052
34. Kisu, I., Banno, K., Mihara, M., … T. I.-E. J. of, & 2011, undefined. (n.d.). Current status of surrogacy in Japan and uterine transplantation research. Elsevier. Retrieved from https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301211511002533?casa_token=1YPwA01S
35. TCIAAAAA:bWZ3dGOMuuqBFMJdTyEg9JFaC7kQhLXuCVg2kqof0ev4lNWRxokWxjXSGm0QuNkwELQgyOfhhQ
36. Lasker, S. P. (2015). Surrogacy. In Encyclopedia of Global Bioethics (pp. 1–8). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-05544-2_409-1
37. Lasker, S. P., & Ghilardi, M. (2018). Genetic Gestational Surrogacy: Hope for Muslims. Bangladesh Journal of Bioethics, 8(3), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.3329/bioethics.v8i3.35680
38. Machado, S. G., Gail, M. H., & Ellenberg, S. S. (1990). On the use of laboratory markers as surrogates for clinical endpoints in the evaluation of treatment for HIV infection. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 3(11), 1065–1073.
39. Nozawa, S., & Banno, K. (2004). Surrogacy. Japan Medical Association Journal, 47(4), 192–203.
40. Numrich, P. D. (2009). The Problem with Sex According to Buddhism. Dialog, 48(1), 62–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6385.2009.00431.x
41. Oliphant, R. E. (2007). Surrogacy in Black law dictionary, family law. New York: Aspen Publishers.
42. Ramskold, L., ethics, M. P.-J. of medical, & 2013, undefined. (n.d.). Commercial surrogacy: how provisions of monetary remuneration and powers of international law can prevent exploitation of gestational surrogates. Jme.Bmj.Com. https://doi.org/10.1136/medethics-2012-100527 Reddy, J. (2020). Indian Surrogacy: Ending Cheap Labor. Santa Clara J. Int’l L., 18, 92.
43. Samani, R. O., Moalem, M. R. R., Merghati, S. T., & Alizadeh, L. (2009). Debate in embryo donation: Embryo donation or both-gamete donation? Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 19(SUPPL. 1), 29–33.
44. Schenker, J. G. (1997). Infertility evaluation and treatment according to Jewish law. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, 71(2), 113–121.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-2115(96)02621-8
45. Schenker, J. G. (1997). Infertility evaluation and treatment according to Jewish law. European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, 71(2), 113–121.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-2115(96)02621-8
46. Serour, G. (2008). Islamic perspectives in human reproduction. Reproductive BioMedicine Online, 17(SUPPL. 3), 34–38.
47. Shabana, A. (2015). Foundations of the Consensus against Surrogacy Arrangements in Islamic Law. Islamic Law and Society, 22(1–2), 82–113. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685195-02212P03
48. Söderström-Anttila, V., … U. W.-H. reproduction, & 2016, undefined. (n.d.). Surrogacy: outcomes for surrogate mothers, children and the resulting families—a systematic review. Academic.Oup.Com. Retrieved from https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article-abstract/22/2/ 260/2457841
49. Strasser, M. (2015). Tradition Surrogacy Contracts, Partial Enforcement, and the Challenge for Family Law. J. Health Care L. & Pol’y, 18, 85.
50. Sunan Abi Dawud 2158 - Marriage (Kitab Al-Nikah) - النكاح كتاب - Sunnah.com - Sayings and Teachings of Prophet Muhammad (سلم و عليه الله صلى). (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2021, from https://sunnah.com/abudawud:2158
51. Surrogacy: Where In the World? - ORM Fertility. (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2021, from https://ormfertility.com/surrogacy/surrogacy-where-in-the-world/
52. Surrogate motherhood | Definition & Facts | Britannica. (n.d.). Retrieved November 20, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/surrogate-motherhood
53. Taebi, M., Bahrami, R., Bagheri-Lankarani, N., & Shahriari, M. (2018). Ethical challenges of embryo donation in embryo donors and recipients. Iranian Journal of Nursing and Midwifery Research, 23(1), 36.
54. The Baby Business: A Study on Indian Market of Commercial Surrogacy and Its Implications. (n.d.).
55. Torres, G., Shapiro, A., … T. M., & 2019, undefined. (n.d.). A review of surrogate motherhood regulation in south American countries: pointing to a need for an international legal framework. Bmcpregnancychildbirth …. Retrievedfrom https://bmcpregnancychildbirth.biomedcentral.com/ articles/10.1186/s12884-019-2182-1
56. Torres, G., Shapiro, A., & Mackey, T. K. (2019). A review of surrogate motherhood regulation in south American countries: Pointing to a need for an international legal framework. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 19(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/S12884-019-2182-1
57. Vaishnavi, G. (2015a). History of Surrogacy. In Surrogacy: Medicolegal Issues (pp. 8–8). Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd. https://doi.org/10.5005/jp/books/12585_3
58. Vaishnavi, G. (2015b). Inception of Surrogacy Laws in India. In Surrogacy: Medicolegal Issues (pp. 59–59). Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers (P) Ltd.
https://doi.org/10.5005/jp/books/12585_8
59. Zoloth, L., & Henning, A. A. (2010). Bioethics and Oncofertility: Arguments and Insights from Religious Traditions. Cancer Treatment and Research, 156, 261–278. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-6518-9_20
60. Zucker, D. J. (2021). In/Voluntary Surrogacy in Genesis. The Asbury Journal, 76(1), 3.
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Nov 22, 2023
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How to Cite
Waqas Ali Haider, Dr. Abdul Ghaffar, Aisha Iftikhar, Dr. Abdul Haseeb, Dr. Asma Aziz, Abdullah Yousaf, & Muhammad Yasin Ayoub. (2023). SURROGACY AS A ‘WOMB-ON-HIRE’: A RELIGIOUS ANALYSIS OF ITS APPROACH TO INFERTILITY. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 30(18), 2615–2627. https://doi.org/10.53555/jptcp.v30i18.3451
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Author Biographies
Waqas Ali Haider
Department of Islamic Studies, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan
Dr. Abdul Ghaffar
Department of Islamic Studies, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan
Aisha Iftikhar
Faculty of Geography, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming, China
Dr. Abdul Haseeb
Department of Basic Sciences, Punjab Tianjin University of Technology Lahore, Pakistan
Dr. Asma Aziz
Department of Islamic Studies, GC Women University Faisalabad, Pakistan
Abdullah Yousaf
Department of Islamic Studies, University of Okara, Okara, Pakistan
Muhammad Yasin Ayoub
Department of Islamic Studies, National College of Business Administration & Economics, Lahore, Pakistan