Use Knowledge and Beliefs regarding Performance-Enhancing Agents among Saudi Female Athletes
Main Article Content
Keywords
athletes, beliefs, female, knowledge, performance-enhancing agents (PEAs), Saudi Arabia
Abstract
Women of all ages now have more opportunities to compete at higher levels because of the explosion in professional female sports. This additional potential may encourage female athletes to use performance-enhancing agents (PEAs). The objective of this study is to determine the use, knowledge, and beliefs regarding PEAs among Saudi female athletes. Adolescent and adult female Saudi athletes were included in this descriptive cross-sectional study. The data were collected using an online questionnaire. Overall, 335 female Saudi athletes participated in this study. Only 16.1% of participants reported using PEAs to enhance their performance and body image. Protein supplements were the most commonly used PEAs among the participants (47 participants; 14.6%), followed by energy drinks (45 participants; 14%). There was no significant difference between user knowledge, awareness of negative health consequences, and use of PEAs. To conclude, PEA abuse is rare among athletes in Saudi Arabia. In this study, we reported a lower level of PEAs among female athletes than those reported in a previous Saudi study. Concerning the risk of PEAs use, the study reported that females are exposed equally to protective or risk factors for PEAs use compared to previous studies concerning the male population.
References
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28. Ahmed, M. H.; Al-Saud, N. S.; Omar, A. M.; Magadmi, R. M.; Hassan, S. M.; Al-Qudsi, F. M., Knowledge of and attitudes toward the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids among the population of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. J Microsc Ultrastruct 2019, 7 (2), 78.
29. Alsunni, A. A.; Badar, A., Energy drinks consumption pattern, perceived benefits and associated adverse effects amongst students of University of Dammam, Saudi Arabia. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad 2011, 23 (3), 3-9.
30. Hearne, E.; Wazaify, M.; Van Hout, M. C.; Atkinson, A.; McVeigh, J., Anabolic-androgenic steroid use in the Eastern Mediterranean region: A scoping review of extant empirical literature. Int J Ment Health Addict 2021, 19, 1162-1189.
31. Tahtamouni, L. H.; Mustafa, N. H.; Alfaouri, A. A.; Hassan, I. M.; Abdalla, M. Y.; Yasin, S. R., Prevalence and risk factors for anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse among Jordanian collegiate students and athletes. Eur J Public Health 2008, 18 (6), 661-665.
32. Alsaeed, I.; Alabkal, J. R., Usage and perceptions of anabolic-androgenic steroids among male fitness centre attendees in Kuwait-a cross-sectional study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2015, 10 (1), 1-6. 33. Al-Shati, H.; Manar, A.; Al-Jabri, R.; Saleh, M.; Al-Arouj, A.; Abdullah, A.; Bouhaimed, M., Use of Appearance and Performance-enhancing Drugs and Supplements among University Students in Kuwait. Jacobs Journal of Sports Medicine. 2015.
34. Bahrke, M. S.; Yesalis, C. E., Abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids and related substances in sport and exercise. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2004, 4 (6), 614-620.
35. Ip, E. J.; Lu, D. H.; Barnett, M. J.; Tenerowicz, M. J.; Vo, J. C.; Perry, P. J., Psychological and physical impact of anabolic‐androgenic steroid dependence. Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy 2012, 32 (10), 910-919.
36. O’dea, J. A., Consumption of nutritional supplements among adolescents: usage and perceived benefits. Health Educ Res 2003, 18 (1), 98-107.
37. Wiefferink, C.; Detmar, S.; Coumans, B.; Vogels, T.; Paulussen, T., Social psychological determinants of the use of performance-enhancing drugs by gym users. Health Educ Res 2008, 23 (1), 70-80.
38. Yager, Z.; O’Dea, J. A., Relationships between body image, nutritional supplement use, and attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescent boys: implications for prevention programs. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2014, 11 (1), 13.
39. Hoffman, J. R.; Faigenbaum, A. D.; Ratamess, N. A.; Ross, R.; Kang, J.; Tenenbaum, G., Nutritional supplementation and anabolic steroid use in adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008, 40 (1), 15-24.
40. Backhouse, S.; Whitaker, L.; Petróczi, A., Gateway to doping? Supplement use in the context of preferred competitive situations, doping attitude, beliefs, and norms. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2013, 23 (2), 244-252.
41. Hildebrandt, T.; Harty, S.; Langenbucher, J. W., Fitness supplements as a gateway substance for anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Psychol Addict Behav 2012, 26 (4), 955.
42. Khan, L. K.; Sobush, K.; Keener, D.; Goodman, K.; Lowry, A.; Kakietek, J.; Zaro, S., Recommended Community Strategies and Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009, 58 (7), 1-29.
2. Dietz, P.; Ulrich, R.; Dalaker, R.; Striegel, H.; Franke, A. G.; Lieb, K.; Simon, P., Associations between physical and cognitive doping–a cross-sectional study in 2.997 triathletes. PLoS One 2013, 8 (11), e78702.
3. WADA, “The Code”, 2021 available online: https://www.wada-ama.org/sites/default/files/resources/files/2021_wada_code.pdf . Accessed 19 Apr 2022.
4. SAADC’s Establishment & the Fundamental Rationale [Internet]. Available online: http://saadc.com/en/?page_id=89 [cited 2021 Jun 6]
5. Alhyas, L.; El Kashef, A.; AlGhaferi, H., Energy drinks in the Gulf Cooperation Council states: A review. JRSM open 2015, 7 (1), 2054270415593717.
6. Pope, H. G.; Kanayama, G.; Ionescu‐Pioggia, M.; Hudson, J. I., Anabolic steroid users’ attitudes towards physicians. Addiction 2004, 99 (9), 1189-1194.
7. Hope, V. D.; McVeigh, J.; Marongiu, A.; Evans-Brown, M.; Smith, J.; Kimergård, A.; Croxford, S.; Beynon, C. M.; Parry, J. V.; Bellis, M. A., Prevalence of, and risk factors for, HIV, hepatitis B and C infections among men who inject image and performance enhancing drugs: a cross-sectional study. BMJ open 2013, 3 (9), e003207.
8. Pope, H. G., Jr.; Wood, R. I.; Rogol, A.; Nyberg, F.; Bowers, L.; Bhasin, S., Adverse Health Consequences of Performance-Enhancing Drugs: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement. Endocr Rev 2014, 35 (3), 341-375.
9. Böttiger, Y.; Ranung, M., Swedish Clinical Guidelines On: The Abuse of Anabolic Androgenic Steroids (AAS) and Other Hormonal Drugs. Anti-doping hotline, Karolinska University Hospital: 2013.
10. Solimini, R.; Rotolo, M.; Mastrobattista, L.; Mortali, C.; Minutillo, A.; Pichini, S.; Pacifici, R.; Palmi, I., Hepatotoxicity associated with illicit use of anabolic androgenic steroids in doping. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2017, 21 (1 Suppl), 7-16.
11. Klötz, F.; Garle, M.; Granath, F.; Thiblin, I., Criminality among individuals testing positive for the presence of anabolic androgenic steroids. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2006, 63 (11), 1274-1279.
12. Sansone, A.; Sansone, M.; Vaamonde, D.; Sgrò, P.; Salzano, C.; Romanelli, F.; Lenzi, A.; Di Luigi, L., Sport, doping and male fertility. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2018, 16 (1), 114.
13. Metzl, J. D.; Small, E.; Levine, S. R.; Gershel, J. C., Creatine Use Among Young Athletes. Pediatrics 2001, 108 (2), 421-425.
14. Reyes-Vallejo, L., Current use and abuse of anabolic steroids. Actas Urol Esp (Engl Ed)) 2020, 44 (5), 309-313.
15. Al Ghobain, M.; Konbaz, M.; Almassad, A.; Alsultan, A.; Al Shubaili, M.; AlShabanh, O., Prevalence, knowledge and attitude of prohibited substances use (doping) among Saudi sport players. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2016, 11 (1), 1-6.
16. Al Nozha, O. M.; Elshatarat, R. A., Influence of knowledge and beliefs on consumption of performance enhancing agents in north-western Saudi Arabia. Ann Saudi Med 2017, 37 (4), 317-325.
17. Alharbi, F. F.; Gamaleddin, I.; Alharbi, S. F.; Almodayfer, O.; Allohidan, F.; Alghobain, M.; Arafah, A.; Al-Surimi, K., Knowledge, attitudes and use of anabolic-androgenic steroids among male gym users: A community based survey in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Pharm J 2019, 27 (2), 254-263.
18. Jabari, M.; Al-Shehri, H.; Al-Faris, A.; Al-Sayed, M.; Algaeed, F.; Al-Sobaie, N.; Al-Saleh, F., The prevalence of anabolic androgenic steroid use amongst athletes in Riyadh (Saudi Arabia). Electron Physician 2016, 8 (12), 3343.
19. Al Bishi, K. A.; Afify, A., Prevalence and awareness of anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS) among gymnasts in the western province of Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Electron Physician 2017, 9 (12), 6050.
20. Mahamid, E.; Hegazy, A. A.; Abu, I. I. M., The Use of Anabolic Steroids among Male Athletes at Private Athletic Centers in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Medical Science and Health Research 2020, 4 (03), 24-36.
21. Aldarweesh, H.; Alhajjaj, A., Anabolic Androgenic Steroid Use Prevalence, Knowledge, and Practice among Male Athletes in Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia. Electron J Gen Med. 2020; 17 (2): em187. 2020.
22. Bahri, A.; Mahfouz, M. S.; Marran, N. M.; Dighriri, Y. H.; Alessa, H. S.; Khwaji, M. O.; Zafar, S. M., Prevalence and awareness of anabolic androgenic steroid use among male body builders in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. Trop J Pharm Res 2017, 16 (6), 1425-1430.
23. Althobiti, S. D.; Alqurashi, N. M.; Alotaibi, A. S.; Alharthi, T. F.; Alswat, K. A., Prevalence, attitude, knowledge, and practice of anabolic androgenic steroid (AAS) use among gym participants. Mater Sociomed 2018, 30 (1), 49.
24. Alshammari, S. A.; AlShowair, M. A.; AlRuhaim, A., Use of hormones and nutritional supplements among gyms' attendees in Riyadh. J Family Community Med 2017, 24 (1), 6.
25. Al-Falasi, O.; Al-Dahmani, K.; Al-Eisaei, K.; Al-Ameri, S.; Al-Maskari, F.; Nagelkerke, N.; Schneider, J., Knowledge, attitude and practice of anabolic steroids use among gym users in Al-Ain district, United Arab Emirates. Open Sports Med J 2008, 2, 75-81.
26. Kolt, G. S., A review of the year that has been. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport 2012, 15 (6), 479.
27. Aluqmany, R.; Mansoor, R.; Saad, U.; Abdullah, R., Consumption of energy drinks among female secondary school students, Almadinah Almunawwarah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 2011. J Taibah Univ Med Sci 2013, 8 (1), 60-65.
28. Ahmed, M. H.; Al-Saud, N. S.; Omar, A. M.; Magadmi, R. M.; Hassan, S. M.; Al-Qudsi, F. M., Knowledge of and attitudes toward the use of anabolic-androgenic steroids among the population of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. J Microsc Ultrastruct 2019, 7 (2), 78.
29. Alsunni, A. A.; Badar, A., Energy drinks consumption pattern, perceived benefits and associated adverse effects amongst students of University of Dammam, Saudi Arabia. J Ayub Med Coll Abbottabad 2011, 23 (3), 3-9.
30. Hearne, E.; Wazaify, M.; Van Hout, M. C.; Atkinson, A.; McVeigh, J., Anabolic-androgenic steroid use in the Eastern Mediterranean region: A scoping review of extant empirical literature. Int J Ment Health Addict 2021, 19, 1162-1189.
31. Tahtamouni, L. H.; Mustafa, N. H.; Alfaouri, A. A.; Hassan, I. M.; Abdalla, M. Y.; Yasin, S. R., Prevalence and risk factors for anabolic-androgenic steroid abuse among Jordanian collegiate students and athletes. Eur J Public Health 2008, 18 (6), 661-665.
32. Alsaeed, I.; Alabkal, J. R., Usage and perceptions of anabolic-androgenic steroids among male fitness centre attendees in Kuwait-a cross-sectional study. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy 2015, 10 (1), 1-6. 33. Al-Shati, H.; Manar, A.; Al-Jabri, R.; Saleh, M.; Al-Arouj, A.; Abdullah, A.; Bouhaimed, M., Use of Appearance and Performance-enhancing Drugs and Supplements among University Students in Kuwait. Jacobs Journal of Sports Medicine. 2015.
34. Bahrke, M. S.; Yesalis, C. E., Abuse of anabolic androgenic steroids and related substances in sport and exercise. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2004, 4 (6), 614-620.
35. Ip, E. J.; Lu, D. H.; Barnett, M. J.; Tenerowicz, M. J.; Vo, J. C.; Perry, P. J., Psychological and physical impact of anabolic‐androgenic steroid dependence. Pharmacotherapy: The Journal of Human Pharmacology and Drug Therapy 2012, 32 (10), 910-919.
36. O’dea, J. A., Consumption of nutritional supplements among adolescents: usage and perceived benefits. Health Educ Res 2003, 18 (1), 98-107.
37. Wiefferink, C.; Detmar, S.; Coumans, B.; Vogels, T.; Paulussen, T., Social psychological determinants of the use of performance-enhancing drugs by gym users. Health Educ Res 2008, 23 (1), 70-80.
38. Yager, Z.; O’Dea, J. A., Relationships between body image, nutritional supplement use, and attitudes towards doping in sport among adolescent boys: implications for prevention programs. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2014, 11 (1), 13.
39. Hoffman, J. R.; Faigenbaum, A. D.; Ratamess, N. A.; Ross, R.; Kang, J.; Tenenbaum, G., Nutritional supplementation and anabolic steroid use in adolescents. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2008, 40 (1), 15-24.
40. Backhouse, S.; Whitaker, L.; Petróczi, A., Gateway to doping? Supplement use in the context of preferred competitive situations, doping attitude, beliefs, and norms. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2013, 23 (2), 244-252.
41. Hildebrandt, T.; Harty, S.; Langenbucher, J. W., Fitness supplements as a gateway substance for anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Psychol Addict Behav 2012, 26 (4), 955.
42. Khan, L. K.; Sobush, K.; Keener, D.; Goodman, K.; Lowry, A.; Kakietek, J.; Zaro, S., Recommended Community Strategies and Measurements to Prevent Obesity in the United States. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009, 58 (7), 1-29.
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Mar 29, 2023
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Mohammed Zaid Aljulifi. (2023). Use Knowledge and Beliefs regarding Performance-Enhancing Agents among Saudi Female Athletes. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 30(5), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.47750/jptcp.2023.30.05.024
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