EFFECT OF VISUAL AIDS ON THE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN WITH DOWN SYNDROME
Main Article Content
Keywords
Down syndrome; Global health issue; motor development; visual aids; hypotonia; gross motor function; GMFM-88; cognitive deficits; early rehabilitation; interactive games; pediatric physical therapy; coordination; functional independence
Abstract
Down syndrome (DS) is a common chromosomal disorder associated with delayed motor development due to hypotonia and cognitive deficits. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of visual aids on the motor development of children with DS aged 2–6 years. A comparative cohort design was used with 70 participants equally divided into two groups, those using visual aids and those without. Motor performance was assessed using the Gross Motor Functional Measure–88 (GMFM-88) across five domains. Results showed that children using visual aids achieved significantly higher mean scores in all motor domains (p < 0.001), particularly in standing and walking/jumping/running. Interactive games were the most effective and commonly used form of visual aid. The study concludes that consistent use of visual aids can significantly enhance gross motor skills, coordination, and independence in children with DS, making them a valuable component of early rehabilitation programs.
References
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16. Spano M, Mercuri E, Rando T, Panto T, Gagliano A, Henderson S, et al. Motor and perceptual-motor competence in children with Down syndrome: variation in performance with age. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 1999;3(1):7–13.
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18. Malak R, Kotwicka M, Krawczyk-Wasielewska A, Mojs E, Samborski W. Motor skills, cognitive development and balance functions of children with Down syndrome. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 2013;20(4):803–806.
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20. Eid MA, Aly SM, Huneif MA, Ismail DK. Effect of isokinetic training on muscle strength and postural balance in children with Down’s syndrome. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. 2017;40(2):127–133.
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22. Milojevich HM, Slonecker EM, Lukowski AF. Participation in social skills therapy is associated with enhanced recall memory by children with Down syndrome: an exploratory study. Behavior Modification. 2019.
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24. Sacks B, Buckley S. Motor development for individuals with Down syndrome — an overview. Down Syndrome Education Online. 2003.
25. Ferreira-Vasques AT, Lamônica DAC. Motor, linguistic, personal, and social aspects of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Applied Oral Science. 2015;23(4):424–430.
26. Champagne D, Dugas C. Improving gross motor function and postural control with hippotherapy in children with Down syndrome. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 2010;26(8):564–571.
27. Lloyd M, Burghardt A, Ulrich DA, Angulo-Barroso R. Physical activity and walking onset in infants with Down syndrome. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 2010;27(1):1–16.
28. Karantonis DM, Narayanan MR, Mathie M, Lovell NH, Celler BG. Implementation of a real-time human movement classifier using a triaxial accelerometer for ambulatory monitoring. IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine. 2006;10(1):156–167.
29. Verbecque E, Vereeck L, Boudewyns A, Van de Heyning P, Hallemans A. A modified version of the Timed Up and Go Test for children who are preschoolers. Pediatric Physical Therapy. 2016;28(4):409–415.
30. Malak R, Kotwicka M, Krawczyk-Wasielewska A, Mojs E, Szamborski W. Motor skills, cognitive development and balance functions of children with Down syndrome. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 2013;20(4).
31. Alotaibi M, Long T, Kennedy E, Bavishi S. The efficacy of GMFM-88 and GMFM-66 to detect changes in gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy: a literature review. Disability and Rehabilitation. 2014;36(8):617–627.
32. Casey AF, Wang X, Osterling K. Test–retest reliability of the 6-minute walk test in individuals with Down syndrome. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2012;93(11):2068–2074.
33. Wu J, Beerse M, Ajisafe T, Liang H. Walking dynamics in preadolescents with and without Down syndrome. Physical Therapy. 2015;95(5):740–749.
34. Russell D, Palisano R, Walter S, Rosenbaum P, Gemus M, Gowland C, et al. Evaluating motor function in children with Down syndrome: validity of the GMFM. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 1998;40(10):693–701.
35. Pereira K, Basso RP, Lindquist AR, da Silva LG, Tudella E. Infants with Down syndrome: percentage and age for acquisition of gross motor skills. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2013;34(3):894–901.
36. van den Heuvel ME, de Jong I, Lauteslager PE, Volman MJ. Responsiveness of the Test of Basic Motor Skills of Children with Down Syndrome. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics. 2009;29(1):71–85.
37. Palisano RJ, Walter SD, Russell DJ, Rosenbaum PL, Gemus M, Galuppi BE, et al. Gross motor function of children with Down syndrome: creation of motor growth curves. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2001;82(4):494–500.
38. Camara Machado FR, Antunes PP, Souza JM, Santos ACD, Levandowski DC, Oliveira AA. Motor improvement using motion sensing game devices for cerebral palsy rehabilitation. Journal of Motor Behavior. 2017;49(3):273–280.
39. de Mello Monteiro CB, da Silva TD, de Abreu LC, Fregni F, de Araujo LV, Ferreira F, et al. Short-term motor learning through non-immersive virtual reality tasks in individuals with Down syndrome. BMC Neurology. 2017;17(1):71.
40. Lopes JBP, Grecco LAC, Moura RCF, Lazzari RD, Duarte NAC, Miziara I, et al. Protocol study for a randomised, controlled, double-blind clinical trial involving virtual reality and anodal transcranial direct current stimulation for the improvement of upper limb motor function in children with Down syndrome. BMJ Open. 2017;7(8):e016260.
41. Carrogi-Vianna D, Lopes PB, Cymrot R, Hengles Almeida JJ, Yazaki ML, Blascovi-Assis SM. Analysis of movement acceleration of Down’s syndrome teenagers playing computer games. Games for Health Journal. 2017;6(6):358–364.
42. Boleracki M, Farkas F, Meszely A, Szikszai Z, Sik Lanyi C. Developing an animal counting game in Second Life for a young adult with Down syndrome. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. 2015;217:71–77.
43. Wuang YP, Chiang CS, Su CY, Wang CC. Effectiveness of virtual reality using Wii gaming technology in children with Down syndrome. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2011;32(1):312–321.
44. Hickman R, Popescu L, Manzanares R, Morris B, Lee SP, Dufek JS. Use of active video gaming in children with neuromotor dysfunction: a systematic review. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2017;59(9):903–911.
2. Deng C, Yi L, Mu Y, Zhu J, Qin Y, Fan X, et al. Recent trends in the birth prevalence of Down syndrome in China: impact of prenatal diagnosis and subsequent terminations. Prenatal Diagnosis. 2015;35(4):311–318.
3. Choi H, Van Riper M. Adaptation in families of children with Down syndrome in East Asian countries: an integrative review. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2017;73(8):1792–1806.
4. Jaruratanasirikul S, Kor-Anantakul O, Chowvichian M, Limpitikul W, Dissaneevate P, Intharasangkanawin N, et al. A population-based study of prevalence of Down syndrome in Southern Thailand. World Journal of Pediatrics. 2017;13(1):63–69.
5. Kim HI, Kim SW, Kim J, Jeon HR, Jung DW. Motor and cognitive developmental profiles in children with Down syndrome. Annals of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2017;41(1):97–103.
6. Alesi M, Battaglia G, Pepi A, Bianco A, Palma A. Gross motor proficiency and intellectual functioning: A comparison among children with Down syndrome, borderline intellectual functioning, and typically developing children. Medicine. 2018;97(41):e12737.
7. Siebra CA, Siebra HA. Using computational support in motor ability analysis of individuals with Down syndrome: Literature review. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine. 2018;157:145–152.
8. Winders P, Wolter-Warmerdam K, Hickey F. A schedule of gross motor development for children with Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2019;63(4):346–356.
9. Cardoso AC, Campos AC, Santos MM, Santos DC, Rocha NA. Motor performance of children with Down syndrome and typical development at 2 to 4 and 26 months. Pediatric Physical Therapy. 2015;27(2):135–141.
10. Capio CM, Mak TCT, Tse MA, Masters RSW. Fundamental movement skills and balance of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2018;62(3):225–236.
11. Ko J. Sensitivity to functional improvements of GMFM-88, GMFM-66, and PEDI mobility scores in young children with cerebral palsy. Perceptual and Motor Skills. 2014;119(1):305–319.
12. Foley C, Killeen OG. Musculoskeletal anomalies in children with Down syndrome: an observational study. Archives of Disease in Childhood. 2019;104(5):482–487.
13. Anil MA, Shabnam S, Narayanan S. Feeding and swallowing difficulties in children with Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2019.
14. Malak R, Kostiukow A, Krawczyk-Wasielewska A, Mojs E, Samborski W. Delays in motor development in children with Down syndrome. Medical Science Monitor. 2015;21:1904–1910.
15. Volman MJ, Visser JJ, Lensvelt-Mulders GJ. Functional status in 5- to 7-year-old children with Down syndrome in relation to motor ability and performance mental ability. Disability and Rehabilitation. 2007;29(1):25–31.
16. Spano M, Mercuri E, Rando T, Panto T, Gagliano A, Henderson S, et al. Motor and perceptual-motor competence in children with Down syndrome: variation in performance with age. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. 1999;3(1):7–13.
17. Pena GM, Pavao SL, Oliveira MFP, Godoi D, de Campos AC, Rocha N. Dual-task effects on postural sway during sit-to-stand movement in children with Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research. 2019.
18. Malak R, Kotwicka M, Krawczyk-Wasielewska A, Mojs E, Samborski W. Motor skills, cognitive development and balance functions of children with Down syndrome. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 2013;20(4):803–806.
19. Yamauchi Y, Aoki S, Koike J, Hanzawa N, Hashimoto K. Motor and cognitive development of children with Down syndrome: The effect of acquisition of walking skills on their cognitive and language abilities. Brain & Development. 2019;41(4):320–326.
20. Eid MA, Aly SM, Huneif MA, Ismail DK. Effect of isokinetic training on muscle strength and postural balance in children with Down’s syndrome. International Journal of Rehabilitation Research. 2017;40(2):127–133.
21. Belluscio V, Bergamini E, Salatino G, Marro T, Gentili P, Iosa M, et al. Dynamic balance assessment during gait in children with Down and Prader–Willi syndromes using inertial sensors. Human Movement Science. 2019;63:53–61.
22. Milojevich HM, Slonecker EM, Lukowski AF. Participation in social skills therapy is associated with enhanced recall memory by children with Down syndrome: an exploratory study. Behavior Modification. 2019.
23. Beqaj S, Tershnjaku EET, Qorolli M, Zivkovic V. Contribution of physical and motor characteristics to functional performance in children and adolescents with Down syndrome: a preliminary study. Medical Science Monitor Basic Research. 2018;24:159–167.
24. Sacks B, Buckley S. Motor development for individuals with Down syndrome — an overview. Down Syndrome Education Online. 2003.
25. Ferreira-Vasques AT, Lamônica DAC. Motor, linguistic, personal, and social aspects of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Applied Oral Science. 2015;23(4):424–430.
26. Champagne D, Dugas C. Improving gross motor function and postural control with hippotherapy in children with Down syndrome. Physiotherapy Theory and Practice. 2010;26(8):564–571.
27. Lloyd M, Burghardt A, Ulrich DA, Angulo-Barroso R. Physical activity and walking onset in infants with Down syndrome. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly. 2010;27(1):1–16.
28. Karantonis DM, Narayanan MR, Mathie M, Lovell NH, Celler BG. Implementation of a real-time human movement classifier using a triaxial accelerometer for ambulatory monitoring. IEEE Transactions on Information Technology in Biomedicine. 2006;10(1):156–167.
29. Verbecque E, Vereeck L, Boudewyns A, Van de Heyning P, Hallemans A. A modified version of the Timed Up and Go Test for children who are preschoolers. Pediatric Physical Therapy. 2016;28(4):409–415.
30. Malak R, Kotwicka M, Krawczyk-Wasielewska A, Mojs E, Szamborski W. Motor skills, cognitive development and balance functions of children with Down syndrome. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 2013;20(4).
31. Alotaibi M, Long T, Kennedy E, Bavishi S. The efficacy of GMFM-88 and GMFM-66 to detect changes in gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy: a literature review. Disability and Rehabilitation. 2014;36(8):617–627.
32. Casey AF, Wang X, Osterling K. Test–retest reliability of the 6-minute walk test in individuals with Down syndrome. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2012;93(11):2068–2074.
33. Wu J, Beerse M, Ajisafe T, Liang H. Walking dynamics in preadolescents with and without Down syndrome. Physical Therapy. 2015;95(5):740–749.
34. Russell D, Palisano R, Walter S, Rosenbaum P, Gemus M, Gowland C, et al. Evaluating motor function in children with Down syndrome: validity of the GMFM. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 1998;40(10):693–701.
35. Pereira K, Basso RP, Lindquist AR, da Silva LG, Tudella E. Infants with Down syndrome: percentage and age for acquisition of gross motor skills. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2013;34(3):894–901.
36. van den Heuvel ME, de Jong I, Lauteslager PE, Volman MJ. Responsiveness of the Test of Basic Motor Skills of Children with Down Syndrome. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics. 2009;29(1):71–85.
37. Palisano RJ, Walter SD, Russell DJ, Rosenbaum PL, Gemus M, Galuppi BE, et al. Gross motor function of children with Down syndrome: creation of motor growth curves. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2001;82(4):494–500.
38. Camara Machado FR, Antunes PP, Souza JM, Santos ACD, Levandowski DC, Oliveira AA. Motor improvement using motion sensing game devices for cerebral palsy rehabilitation. Journal of Motor Behavior. 2017;49(3):273–280.
39. de Mello Monteiro CB, da Silva TD, de Abreu LC, Fregni F, de Araujo LV, Ferreira F, et al. Short-term motor learning through non-immersive virtual reality tasks in individuals with Down syndrome. BMC Neurology. 2017;17(1):71.
40. Lopes JBP, Grecco LAC, Moura RCF, Lazzari RD, Duarte NAC, Miziara I, et al. Protocol study for a randomised, controlled, double-blind clinical trial involving virtual reality and anodal transcranial direct current stimulation for the improvement of upper limb motor function in children with Down syndrome. BMJ Open. 2017;7(8):e016260.
41. Carrogi-Vianna D, Lopes PB, Cymrot R, Hengles Almeida JJ, Yazaki ML, Blascovi-Assis SM. Analysis of movement acceleration of Down’s syndrome teenagers playing computer games. Games for Health Journal. 2017;6(6):358–364.
42. Boleracki M, Farkas F, Meszely A, Szikszai Z, Sik Lanyi C. Developing an animal counting game in Second Life for a young adult with Down syndrome. Studies in Health Technology and Informatics. 2015;217:71–77.
43. Wuang YP, Chiang CS, Su CY, Wang CC. Effectiveness of virtual reality using Wii gaming technology in children with Down syndrome. Research in Developmental Disabilities. 2011;32(1):312–321.
44. Hickman R, Popescu L, Manzanares R, Morris B, Lee SP, Dufek JS. Use of active video gaming in children with neuromotor dysfunction: a systematic review. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 2017;59(9):903–911.
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Jun 20, 2019
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How to Cite
Menahil Rahman, Mariha Faisal, & Rabia Inam. (2019). EFFECT OF VISUAL AIDS ON THE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN WITH DOWN SYNDROME. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 26(2), 106-120. https://doi.org/10.53555/d6pmq561
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Author Biographies
Menahil Rahman
Department of Physical Therapy, Shifa College of Medicine, Shifa Tameer e Millat University
Mariha Faisal
Department of Physical Therapy, Shifa College of Medicine, Shifa Tameer e Millat University
Rabia Inam
Department of Physical Therapy, Shifa College of Medicine, Shifa Tameer e Millat University
How to Cite
Menahil Rahman, Mariha Faisal, & Rabia Inam. (2019). EFFECT OF VISUAL AIDS ON THE MOTOR DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN WITH DOWN SYNDROME. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 26(2), 106-120. https://doi.org/10.53555/d6pmq561