Cardio-Renal Syndrome
Main Article Content
Keywords
Kidney failure, cardiovascular disease, cardio-renal syndrome, Reno-cardiac syndrome
Abstract
The cardio-renal syndrome (CRS) can be generally defined as a pathophysiologic disorder includes a broad spectrum of diseases in which heart and kidney are both involved, the CRS classification essentially recognizes two main groups, cardio-renal and Reno-cardiac syndromes, on the basis of ‘‘premium moves’’ of disease (cardiac or renal); both cardio-renal and Reno-cardiac syndromes are
then divided into acute and chronic, according to the disease’s onset, Five subtypes of the syndromes were identified, abrupt worsening of cardiac function that lead to acute kidney injury called Acute Cardio-renal Syndrome or Type 1 CRS, this appears to be a syndrome of worsening renal function that frequently complicates hospitalized patients with acute heart failure and acute coronary syndrome. When Chronic abnormalities in cardiac function (e.g. chronic congestive heart failure) cause progressive and potentially permanent chronic kidney disease this condition called chronic cardiorenal syndrome or Type 2 CRS, CKD has been observed in 45-63% of CHF patients24, 25, 26, [10]. The number of participants in the questionnaire is 100 and the questionnaire was distributed in two
ways. In the first way, the questionnaire was published on social media and the number of participants was 79 and the number of pharmacists participating in the electronic questionnaire was 51 and the number of participating physicians was 28. In the second way, the questionnaire was distributed to a group of private pharmacies in Baghdad, which numbered 21 and purpose of the questionnaire was to find out if the participants had any information about Cardio-renal Syndrome. Heart and kidney interactions are complex and the subject of immense clinical and scientific interest and debate. In this article, we argue that without consensus on definitions and classification, clinicians will not be able to precisely phenotype the various forms of cardio- renal syndrome. Such phenotyping,
in turn, forms the basis for in vitro and animal studies, as well as small translational studies in patients. Through the ADQI consensus on CRS, other processes will now be facilitated, including a better or clearer understanding of the epidemiology of these conditions, opportunities for early diagnosis through biomarkers, the development of preventive strategies and application of evidence-based
management strategies
References
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2. Manjunath G, Tighiouart H, Ibrahim H, Et Al: Level Of Kidney Function As A Risk Factor For Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Outcomes In The Community. J Amcoll Cardiol 41:47–55, 2003
3. Go As, Chertow Gm, Fan D, Et Al: Chronic Kidney Disease And The Risks Of Death, Cardiovascular Events, And Hospitalization. N
Engl J Med 351:1296–1305, 2004
4. Wachtell K, Ibsen H,Olsenmh,Et Al: Albuminuria And Cardiovascular Risk In Hypertensive Patients With Left Ventricular Hypertrophy: The LIFE Study. Ann Intern Med 139:901–906, 2003
5. Mann Jf, Gerstein Hc, Yi Ql, Et Al: Development Of Renal Disease In People At High Cardiovascular Risk: Results Of The HOPE
Randomized Study. J Amsoc Nephrol 14:641– 647, 2003
6. Nakano T, Ninomiya T, Sumiyoshi S Et Al. Association Of Kidney Function With Coronary Atherosclerosis And Calcification In Autopsy
Samples From Japanese Elders: The Hisayama Study. Am J Kidney Dis 2010; 55: 21 30.
7. Chonchol M, Whittle J, Desbien A Et Al. Chronic Kidney Disease Is Associated With Angiographic Coronary Artery Disease. Am J Nephrol 2008; 28: 354–360.
8. Ronco C, Haapio M, House AA, Et Al. CardioRenal Syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52(19):1527–39.
9. 2 Ronco C, Chionh CY, Haapio M, Anavekar NS, House A, Bellomo R. The Cardio-Renal Syndrome. Blood Purif 2009; 27:114–126, Epub
2009 Jan 23.
10. Gottlieb SS, Abraham W, Butler J, Et Al: The Prognostic Importance Of Different Definitions Of Worsening Renal Function In Congestive Heart Failure. J Card Fail 2002; 8:136–141.
11. National Kidney Foundation: K/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines For Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, Classification, And Stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 2002;39: S1–S266.
12. Heywood JT, Fonarow GC, Costanzo MR, Et Al: High Prevalence Of Renal Dysfunction And Its Impact On Outcome In 118,465 Patients
Hospitalized With Acute Decompensated Heart Failure: A Report From The ADHERE Database. J Card Fail 2007; 13:422–430.
13. Kellum JA, Levin N, Bouman C, Lameire N: Developing A Consensus Classification System For Acute Renal Failure. Curr Opin Crit Care
2002; 8:509–514.
14. Tonelli M, Wiebe N, Culleton B, Et Al: Chronic Kidney Disease And Mortality Risk: A Systematic Review. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;
17:2034–2047.
15. Li, X Hassoun, HT Santora, R Rabb, H Organ Crosstalk: The Role Of The Kidney. Curr Opin Critcare. 2009;15(6):481–487.
16. Virzì, GM Clementi, A Brocca, A Et Al. Molecular And Genetic Mechanisms Involved In Thepathogenesis Of Cardio-Renal Cross Talk.
Pathobiology. 2016;83(4):201–210.
17. Rangel-Frausto, MS Pittet, D Costigan, M Hwang, T Davis, CS Wenzel, RP The Natural History Of The Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS). A Prospective Study. JAMA.1995;273(2):117–123.
18. Ympa, YP Sakr, Y Reinhart, K Vincent, JL Has Mortality From Acute Renal Failure Decreased? Asystematic Review Of The Literature. Am J Med. 2005;118(8):827–832.
19. Jörres, A Gahl, GM Dobis, C Et Al. International Multicentre Study Group. HaemodialysisMembrane Biocompatibility And Mortality Of
Patients With Dialysis-Dependent Acute Renal Failure: Aprospective Randomised Multicentre Trial. Lancet. 1999;354(9187):1337–1341.
20. Falk, RH Dubrey, SW Amyloid Heart Disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2010;52(4):347–361.
21. Kyle, RA Bayrd, ED Amyloidosis: Review Of 236 Cases. Medicine (Baltimore). 1975;54(4):271–299.
22. Gertz, MA Kyle, RA Secondary Systemic Amyloidosis: Response And Survival In 64 Patients.Medicine (Baltimore). 1991;70(4):246–256.
23. Janssen, S Van Rijswijk, MH Meijer, S Ruinen, L Van Der Hem, GK Systemic Amyloidosis: Aclinical Survey Of 144 Cases. Neth J Med.
1986;29(11):376–385.
24. David, J Vouyiouka, O Ansell, BM Hall, A Woo, P Amyloidosis In Juvenile Chronic Arthritis: Amorbidity And Mortality Study. Clin
Exp Rheumatol. 1993; 11(1):85–90.
25. Okuda, Y Takasugi, K Oyama, T Onuma, M Oyama, H [Amyloidosis In Rheumatoid Arthritisclinicalstudy Of 124 Histologically Proven Cases]. Ryumachi. 1994; 34(6):939–946.
26. Falck, HM Törnroth, T Wegelius, O Predominantly Vascular Amyloid Deposition In The Kidney Inpatients With Minimal Or No Proteinuria. Clin Nephrol. 1983; 19(3):137–142.
27. Doherty, NE Siegel, RJ Cardiovascular Manifestations Of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Am Heartj. 1985; 110(6):1257–1265.
28. Adams KF Jr, Fonarow GC, Emerman CL, Et Al. Characteristics And Outcomes Of Patients Hospitalized For Heart Failure In The United
States: Rationale, Design, And Preliminary Observations From The First 100,000 Cases In The Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry (ADHERE). Am Heart J. 2005;149(2):209-16149(2):209 16
29. Mcalister FA, Ezekowitz J, Tonelli M, Armstrong PW. Renal Insufficiency And Heart Failure: Prognostic And Therapeutic Implications From A Prospective Cohort Study, Circulation 2004;109(8):1004-1009.
30. Seymour, W. B., Pritchard, W. H., Longley, L. P. & Hayman, J. M. Cardiac Output, Blood And Interstitial Fluid Volumes, Total Circulating
Serum Protein, And Kidney Function During Cardiac Failure And After Improvement. J. Clin. Invest. 21, 229–240 (1942).
31. Poletti R, Vergaro G, Zyw L, Prontera C, Passino C, Emdin M. Prognostic Value Of Plasma Renin Activity In Heart Failure Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease. Int J Caridol.2013;167(3):711- 5.
32. Ruiz - Ortega M, Ruperez M, Lorenzo O, Angiotensin II Regulates The Synthesis Of Proinflammatory Cytokines And Chemokines In
The Kidney. Int Suppl. 2002;(82):S12-22.
33. Bongartz, L. G. Et Al. Target Organ Crosstalk In The Cardio-Renal Syndrome: Animal Models. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 303, F1253–
F1263 (2012)
34. Wright, H. J. & Macadam, D. B. Clinical Thinking And Practice: Diagnosis And Decision In Patient Care (Churchill Livingstone, 1979).
35. Hatamizadeh, P. Et Al. Cardio-Renal Syndrome: Pathophysiology And Potential Targets For Clinical Management. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 9, 99– 111 (2013).
36. Bellomo, R. Et Al. Acute Renal Failure— Definition, Outcome Measures, Animal Models, Fluid Therapy And Information Technology
Needs: The Second International Consensus Conference Of The Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit. Care 8, R204–
R212 (2004).
37. Ronco, C. Et Al. Improving Outcomes From Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): Report On An Initiative. Int. J. Artif. Organs 30, 373–376 (2007).
38. Mccullough P. A. Et Al. Prevention Of CardioRenal Syndromes: Workgroup Statements From The 7th ADQI Consensus Conference. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 25, 1777–1784 (2010).
39. Bagshaw, S. M. et al. Epidemiology of cardiorenal syndromes: workgroup statements from the 7th ADQI consensus conference. Nephrol. Dial.Transplant. 25, 1406–1416 (2010).
40. Gottschalk, C. W. & Mylle, M. Micropuncture study of pressures in proximal tubules and peritubular capillaries of the rat kidney and their relation to ureteral and renal venous pressures. Am. J. Physiol. 185, 430–439 (1956).
41. Cannon, P. J. The kidney in heart failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 296, 26–32 (1977).
42. kidney in congestive heart failure. Acta Med. Scand. Suppl. 707, 21–25 (1986).
43. Ito, S. Cardio-renal syndrome: an evolutionary point of view. Hypertension 60, 589–595 (2012).
44. Silverberg, D. S. et al. The use of subcutaneous erythropoietin and intravenous iron for the treatment of the anemia of severe, resistant congestive heart failure improves cardiac and renal function and functional cardiac class, and markedly reduces hospitalizations. J. Am. Coll. Cardio. 35, 1737–1744 (2000).
45. Cogan, M. G. Angiotensin II: a powerful controller of sodium transport in the early proximal tubule. Hypertension 15, 451–458
(1990).
46. Braam, B., Cupples, W. A., Joles, J. A. & Gaillard, C. Systemic arterial and venous determinants of renal hemodynamics in congestive heart failure. Heart Fail. Rev. 17, 161– 175 (2012).
47. Kishimoto, T., Maekawa, M., Abe, Y. & Yamamoto, K. Intrarenal distribution of blood flow and renin release during renal venous pressure elevation. Kidney Int. 4, 259 266 (1973).
48. Kopp, U. C., Olson, L. A. & DiBona, G. F. Renorenal reflex responses to mechano- and chemoreceptor stimulation in the dog and rat.
Am. J. Physiol. 246, F67–F77 (198DiBon
49. Skott, O. & Briggs, J. P. Direct demonstration of macula densa-mediated renin secretion. Science 237, 1618–1620 (1987).
50. Tornig, J. et al. Arteriolar wall thickening, capillary rarefaction and interstitial fibrosis in the heart of rats with renal failure: the effects of Ramipril and moxonidine. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 7, 667–675 (1996).
51. Groeschel, M. & Braam, B. Connecting chronic and recurrent stress to vascular dysfunction: no relaxed role for the renin-angiotensin system. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 300, F1–F10 (2011).
52. Ligtenberg, G. et al. Reduction of sympathetic hyperactivity by enalapril in patients with chronic renal failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 1321–1328 (1999).
53. Chen, H. H., Redfield, M. M., Nordstrom, L. J., Cataliotti, A. & Burnett, J. C. Jr. Angiotensin II AT1 receptor antagonism prevents detrimental renal actions of acute diuretic therapy in human heart failure. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 284, F1115–F1119 (2003).
54. Koomans, H. A., Blankestijn, P. J. & Joles, J. A. Sympathetic hyperactivity in chronic renal failure: a wake-up call. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 15, 524–537 (2004).
55. Bongartz, L. G. et al. Transient nitric oxide reduction induces permanent cardiac systolic dysfunction and worsens kidney damage in rats with chronic kidney disease. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 298, R815–R823 (2010).
56. Braam, B. Renal endothelial and macula densa NOS: integrated response to changes in extracellular fluid volume. Am. J. Physiol. 276, R1551–R1561 (1999).
57. Modlinger, P. S., Wilcox, C. S. & Aslam, S. Nitric oxide, oxidative stress, and progression of chronic renal failure. Semin. Nephrol. 24, 354–365 (2004)
58. Wilcox, C. S. Redox regulation of the afferent arteriole and tubuloglomerular feedback. Acta Physiol. Scand. 179, 217–223 (2003).
59. Rosenbaugh, E. G., Savalia, K. K., Manickam, D. S. & Zimmerman, M. C.Antioxidant-based therapies for angiotensin II- associated
cardiovascular diseases. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 304, R917–R928 (2013).
60. Bongartz, L. G. et al. Subtotal nephrectomy plus coronary ligation leads to more pronounced damage in both organs than either nephrectomy or coronary ligation. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 302, H845–H854 (2012).
61. Tornig, J. et al. Hypertrophy of intramyocardial arteriolar smooth muscle cells in experimental renal failure. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10, 77–83 (1999).
62. Weinfeld MS, Chertow GM, Stevenson LW. Aggravated renal dysfunction during intensive therapy for advanced chronic heart failure. Am Heart J. 1999; 138(2):285-290.
63. Mulleins W, Abrahams Z, Francis GS et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated heart failure. J American Coll Cardiol 2009; 53(7):589-96.
64. Scadding, J. G. Diagnosis: the clinician and the computer. Lancet 2, 877–882 (1967).
2. Manjunath G, Tighiouart H, Ibrahim H, Et Al: Level Of Kidney Function As A Risk Factor For Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Outcomes In The Community. J Amcoll Cardiol 41:47–55, 2003
3. Go As, Chertow Gm, Fan D, Et Al: Chronic Kidney Disease And The Risks Of Death, Cardiovascular Events, And Hospitalization. N
Engl J Med 351:1296–1305, 2004
4. Wachtell K, Ibsen H,Olsenmh,Et Al: Albuminuria And Cardiovascular Risk In Hypertensive Patients With Left Ventricular Hypertrophy: The LIFE Study. Ann Intern Med 139:901–906, 2003
5. Mann Jf, Gerstein Hc, Yi Ql, Et Al: Development Of Renal Disease In People At High Cardiovascular Risk: Results Of The HOPE
Randomized Study. J Amsoc Nephrol 14:641– 647, 2003
6. Nakano T, Ninomiya T, Sumiyoshi S Et Al. Association Of Kidney Function With Coronary Atherosclerosis And Calcification In Autopsy
Samples From Japanese Elders: The Hisayama Study. Am J Kidney Dis 2010; 55: 21 30.
7. Chonchol M, Whittle J, Desbien A Et Al. Chronic Kidney Disease Is Associated With Angiographic Coronary Artery Disease. Am J Nephrol 2008; 28: 354–360.
8. Ronco C, Haapio M, House AA, Et Al. CardioRenal Syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008;52(19):1527–39.
9. 2 Ronco C, Chionh CY, Haapio M, Anavekar NS, House A, Bellomo R. The Cardio-Renal Syndrome. Blood Purif 2009; 27:114–126, Epub
2009 Jan 23.
10. Gottlieb SS, Abraham W, Butler J, Et Al: The Prognostic Importance Of Different Definitions Of Worsening Renal Function In Congestive Heart Failure. J Card Fail 2002; 8:136–141.
11. National Kidney Foundation: K/DOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines For Chronic Kidney Disease: Evaluation, Classification, And Stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 2002;39: S1–S266.
12. Heywood JT, Fonarow GC, Costanzo MR, Et Al: High Prevalence Of Renal Dysfunction And Its Impact On Outcome In 118,465 Patients
Hospitalized With Acute Decompensated Heart Failure: A Report From The ADHERE Database. J Card Fail 2007; 13:422–430.
13. Kellum JA, Levin N, Bouman C, Lameire N: Developing A Consensus Classification System For Acute Renal Failure. Curr Opin Crit Care
2002; 8:509–514.
14. Tonelli M, Wiebe N, Culleton B, Et Al: Chronic Kidney Disease And Mortality Risk: A Systematic Review. J Am Soc Nephrol 2006;
17:2034–2047.
15. Li, X Hassoun, HT Santora, R Rabb, H Organ Crosstalk: The Role Of The Kidney. Curr Opin Critcare. 2009;15(6):481–487.
16. Virzì, GM Clementi, A Brocca, A Et Al. Molecular And Genetic Mechanisms Involved In Thepathogenesis Of Cardio-Renal Cross Talk.
Pathobiology. 2016;83(4):201–210.
17. Rangel-Frausto, MS Pittet, D Costigan, M Hwang, T Davis, CS Wenzel, RP The Natural History Of The Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS). A Prospective Study. JAMA.1995;273(2):117–123.
18. Ympa, YP Sakr, Y Reinhart, K Vincent, JL Has Mortality From Acute Renal Failure Decreased? Asystematic Review Of The Literature. Am J Med. 2005;118(8):827–832.
19. Jörres, A Gahl, GM Dobis, C Et Al. International Multicentre Study Group. HaemodialysisMembrane Biocompatibility And Mortality Of
Patients With Dialysis-Dependent Acute Renal Failure: Aprospective Randomised Multicentre Trial. Lancet. 1999;354(9187):1337–1341.
20. Falk, RH Dubrey, SW Amyloid Heart Disease. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 2010;52(4):347–361.
21. Kyle, RA Bayrd, ED Amyloidosis: Review Of 236 Cases. Medicine (Baltimore). 1975;54(4):271–299.
22. Gertz, MA Kyle, RA Secondary Systemic Amyloidosis: Response And Survival In 64 Patients.Medicine (Baltimore). 1991;70(4):246–256.
23. Janssen, S Van Rijswijk, MH Meijer, S Ruinen, L Van Der Hem, GK Systemic Amyloidosis: Aclinical Survey Of 144 Cases. Neth J Med.
1986;29(11):376–385.
24. David, J Vouyiouka, O Ansell, BM Hall, A Woo, P Amyloidosis In Juvenile Chronic Arthritis: Amorbidity And Mortality Study. Clin
Exp Rheumatol. 1993; 11(1):85–90.
25. Okuda, Y Takasugi, K Oyama, T Onuma, M Oyama, H [Amyloidosis In Rheumatoid Arthritisclinicalstudy Of 124 Histologically Proven Cases]. Ryumachi. 1994; 34(6):939–946.
26. Falck, HM Törnroth, T Wegelius, O Predominantly Vascular Amyloid Deposition In The Kidney Inpatients With Minimal Or No Proteinuria. Clin Nephrol. 1983; 19(3):137–142.
27. Doherty, NE Siegel, RJ Cardiovascular Manifestations Of Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Am Heartj. 1985; 110(6):1257–1265.
28. Adams KF Jr, Fonarow GC, Emerman CL, Et Al. Characteristics And Outcomes Of Patients Hospitalized For Heart Failure In The United
States: Rationale, Design, And Preliminary Observations From The First 100,000 Cases In The Acute Decompensated Heart Failure National Registry (ADHERE). Am Heart J. 2005;149(2):209-16149(2):209 16
29. Mcalister FA, Ezekowitz J, Tonelli M, Armstrong PW. Renal Insufficiency And Heart Failure: Prognostic And Therapeutic Implications From A Prospective Cohort Study, Circulation 2004;109(8):1004-1009.
30. Seymour, W. B., Pritchard, W. H., Longley, L. P. & Hayman, J. M. Cardiac Output, Blood And Interstitial Fluid Volumes, Total Circulating
Serum Protein, And Kidney Function During Cardiac Failure And After Improvement. J. Clin. Invest. 21, 229–240 (1942).
31. Poletti R, Vergaro G, Zyw L, Prontera C, Passino C, Emdin M. Prognostic Value Of Plasma Renin Activity In Heart Failure Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease. Int J Caridol.2013;167(3):711- 5.
32. Ruiz - Ortega M, Ruperez M, Lorenzo O, Angiotensin II Regulates The Synthesis Of Proinflammatory Cytokines And Chemokines In
The Kidney. Int Suppl. 2002;(82):S12-22.
33. Bongartz, L. G. Et Al. Target Organ Crosstalk In The Cardio-Renal Syndrome: Animal Models. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 303, F1253–
F1263 (2012)
34. Wright, H. J. & Macadam, D. B. Clinical Thinking And Practice: Diagnosis And Decision In Patient Care (Churchill Livingstone, 1979).
35. Hatamizadeh, P. Et Al. Cardio-Renal Syndrome: Pathophysiology And Potential Targets For Clinical Management. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 9, 99– 111 (2013).
36. Bellomo, R. Et Al. Acute Renal Failure— Definition, Outcome Measures, Animal Models, Fluid Therapy And Information Technology
Needs: The Second International Consensus Conference Of The Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative (ADQI) Group. Crit. Care 8, R204–
R212 (2004).
37. Ronco, C. Et Al. Improving Outcomes From Acute Kidney Injury (AKI): Report On An Initiative. Int. J. Artif. Organs 30, 373–376 (2007).
38. Mccullough P. A. Et Al. Prevention Of CardioRenal Syndromes: Workgroup Statements From The 7th ADQI Consensus Conference. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 25, 1777–1784 (2010).
39. Bagshaw, S. M. et al. Epidemiology of cardiorenal syndromes: workgroup statements from the 7th ADQI consensus conference. Nephrol. Dial.Transplant. 25, 1406–1416 (2010).
40. Gottschalk, C. W. & Mylle, M. Micropuncture study of pressures in proximal tubules and peritubular capillaries of the rat kidney and their relation to ureteral and renal venous pressures. Am. J. Physiol. 185, 430–439 (1956).
41. Cannon, P. J. The kidney in heart failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 296, 26–32 (1977).
42. kidney in congestive heart failure. Acta Med. Scand. Suppl. 707, 21–25 (1986).
43. Ito, S. Cardio-renal syndrome: an evolutionary point of view. Hypertension 60, 589–595 (2012).
44. Silverberg, D. S. et al. The use of subcutaneous erythropoietin and intravenous iron for the treatment of the anemia of severe, resistant congestive heart failure improves cardiac and renal function and functional cardiac class, and markedly reduces hospitalizations. J. Am. Coll. Cardio. 35, 1737–1744 (2000).
45. Cogan, M. G. Angiotensin II: a powerful controller of sodium transport in the early proximal tubule. Hypertension 15, 451–458
(1990).
46. Braam, B., Cupples, W. A., Joles, J. A. & Gaillard, C. Systemic arterial and venous determinants of renal hemodynamics in congestive heart failure. Heart Fail. Rev. 17, 161– 175 (2012).
47. Kishimoto, T., Maekawa, M., Abe, Y. & Yamamoto, K. Intrarenal distribution of blood flow and renin release during renal venous pressure elevation. Kidney Int. 4, 259 266 (1973).
48. Kopp, U. C., Olson, L. A. & DiBona, G. F. Renorenal reflex responses to mechano- and chemoreceptor stimulation in the dog and rat.
Am. J. Physiol. 246, F67–F77 (198DiBon
49. Skott, O. & Briggs, J. P. Direct demonstration of macula densa-mediated renin secretion. Science 237, 1618–1620 (1987).
50. Tornig, J. et al. Arteriolar wall thickening, capillary rarefaction and interstitial fibrosis in the heart of rats with renal failure: the effects of Ramipril and moxonidine. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 7, 667–675 (1996).
51. Groeschel, M. & Braam, B. Connecting chronic and recurrent stress to vascular dysfunction: no relaxed role for the renin-angiotensin system. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 300, F1–F10 (2011).
52. Ligtenberg, G. et al. Reduction of sympathetic hyperactivity by enalapril in patients with chronic renal failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 340, 1321–1328 (1999).
53. Chen, H. H., Redfield, M. M., Nordstrom, L. J., Cataliotti, A. & Burnett, J. C. Jr. Angiotensin II AT1 receptor antagonism prevents detrimental renal actions of acute diuretic therapy in human heart failure. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol. 284, F1115–F1119 (2003).
54. Koomans, H. A., Blankestijn, P. J. & Joles, J. A. Sympathetic hyperactivity in chronic renal failure: a wake-up call. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 15, 524–537 (2004).
55. Bongartz, L. G. et al. Transient nitric oxide reduction induces permanent cardiac systolic dysfunction and worsens kidney damage in rats with chronic kidney disease. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 298, R815–R823 (2010).
56. Braam, B. Renal endothelial and macula densa NOS: integrated response to changes in extracellular fluid volume. Am. J. Physiol. 276, R1551–R1561 (1999).
57. Modlinger, P. S., Wilcox, C. S. & Aslam, S. Nitric oxide, oxidative stress, and progression of chronic renal failure. Semin. Nephrol. 24, 354–365 (2004)
58. Wilcox, C. S. Redox regulation of the afferent arteriole and tubuloglomerular feedback. Acta Physiol. Scand. 179, 217–223 (2003).
59. Rosenbaugh, E. G., Savalia, K. K., Manickam, D. S. & Zimmerman, M. C.Antioxidant-based therapies for angiotensin II- associated
cardiovascular diseases. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 304, R917–R928 (2013).
60. Bongartz, L. G. et al. Subtotal nephrectomy plus coronary ligation leads to more pronounced damage in both organs than either nephrectomy or coronary ligation. Am. J. Physiol. Heart Circ. Physiol. 302, H845–H854 (2012).
61. Tornig, J. et al. Hypertrophy of intramyocardial arteriolar smooth muscle cells in experimental renal failure. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 10, 77–83 (1999).
62. Weinfeld MS, Chertow GM, Stevenson LW. Aggravated renal dysfunction during intensive therapy for advanced chronic heart failure. Am Heart J. 1999; 138(2):285-290.
63. Mulleins W, Abrahams Z, Francis GS et al. Importance of venous congestion for worsening of renal function in advanced decompensated heart failure. J American Coll Cardiol 2009; 53(7):589-96.
64. Scadding, J. G. Diagnosis: the clinician and the computer. Lancet 2, 877–882 (1967).
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Mar 13, 2023
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Omar Abdulwahid Salih Al-Ani. (2023). Cardio-Renal Syndrome. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 30(3), 144–154. https://doi.org/10.47750/jptcp.2023.30.03.017
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