ANTIBIOTIC GUIDELINE ADHERENCE AND PRESCRIBING PATTERNS AMONG PHYSICIANS IN BANGLADESHI TERTIARY HOSPITALS
Main Article Content
Keywords
Abstract
Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) poses a critical global health threat, with irrational antibiotic prescribing practices being a key driver—especially in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) like Bangladesh. Despite the existence of national and international prescribing guidelines, adherence among physicians remains inconsistent, particularly in tertiary care settings.
Objective: This study aimed to evaluate adherence to national (BSMMU) and international (WHO AWaRe) antibiotic prescribing guidelines and to assess patterns and influencing factors of antibiotic use among physicians in tertiary care institutions in Bangladesh.
Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was conducted among 232 physicians across three tertiary care hospitals in Dhaka. A total of 266 prescriptions were reviewed, of which 192 (72%) contained at least one antibiotic. Data were collected using structured questionnaires and WHO prescribing indicator checklists. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (version 26).
Results: The average number of drugs per prescription was 5.4, with antibiotics prescribed in 72% of encounters—significantly exceeding WHO recommendations. Generic prescribing was low (6.4%), while 96% of antibiotics were broad-spectrum. Watch or Reserve group antibiotics accounted for 48% of prescriptions, surpassing the WHO threshold (≤40%). Only 59% of prescriptions adhered to BSMMU’s preferred guidelines. Physicians frequently considered clinical and pharmacologic factors but reported limited formal training in antibiotic prescribing (25%).
Conclusion: The findings reveal substantial deviations from recommended antibiotic prescribing standards, underscoring the need for improved stewardship interventions, continuous medical education, and enhanced regulatory oversight to promote rational antibiotic use in Bangladeshi tertiary care settings.
References
1. Salam, Md. A., Al-Amin, Md. Y., Salam, M. T., Pawar, J. S., Akhter, N., Rabaan, A. A., & Alqumber, M. A. A. (2023). Antimicrobial Resistance: A Growing Serious Threat for Global Public Health. Healthcare, 11(13), 1946. https://doi.org/10.3390/healthcare11131946
2. WHO. (2023, November 21). Antimicrobial resistance. Retrieved May 22, 2025, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance
3. Llor, C., & Bjerrum, L. (2014). Antimicrobial resistance: risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem. Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety, 5(6), 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042098614554919
4. Antibiotic Use in the United States, 2017: Progress and Opportunities | Antibiotic Use | CDC. (2020, November 13). Retrieved April 29, 2025, from https://archive.cdc.gov/www_cdc_gov /antibiotic-use/stewardship-report/2017.html
5. Islam, M., Islam, K., Dalal, K., & Hossain Hawlader, M. D. (2024). In-house environmental factors and childhood acute respiratory infections in under-five children: a hospital-based matched case-control study in Bangladesh. BMC Pediatrics, 24(1), 38. https://doi.org/10.1186 /s12887-024-04525-4
6. Hoque, R., Ahmed, S. M., Naher, N., Islam, M. A., Rousham, E. K., Islam, B. Z., & Hassan, S. (2020). Tackling antimicrobial resistance in Bangladesh: A scoping review of policy and practice in human, animal and environment sectors. PLOS ONE, 15(1), e0227947. https://doi.org/10.1371 /journal.pone.0227947
7. Ehsan, H. (2025). Antibiotic Resistance in Developing Countries: Emerging Threats and Policy Responses. Public Health Challenges, 4(1), e70034. https://doi.org/10.1002/puh2.70034
8. Biswas, M., Roy, D. N., Tajmim, A., Rajib, S. S., Hossain, M., Farzana, F., & Yasmen, N. (2014). Prescription antibiotics for outpatients in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional health survey conducted in three cities. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 13(1), 15. https://doi.org/10 .1186/1476-0711-13-15
9. Chowdhury, S., Sarker, R., Khan, M. S. I., Ghosh, P. K., Tareq, M. A., & Begum, M. R. (2020). Prescribing Pattern of Antibiotics among Children in a Tertiary-Care Hospital, Bangladesh. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 41(S1), s356–s356. https://doi.org/10.1017 /ice.2020.976
10. Islam, M., Sultana, Z. Z., Iqbal, A., Ali, M., & Hossain, A. (2021). Effect of in-house crowding on childhood hospital admissions for acute respiratory infection: A matched case–control study in Bangladesh. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 105, 639–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2021.03.002
11. 2019 WHO AWaRe Classification Database of Antibiotics for evaluation and monitoring of use. (n.d.). Retrieved April 29, 2025, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHOEMP IAU2019.11
12. Guideline on Antimicrobial Consumption (AMC) Surveillance in Bangladesh. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://dgdagov.info/index.php/information-center/guidance-documents/2340-amc-surveillance-guideline-for-comments/file
13. STG-guideline-for-antimicrobial-use-version-1.0-date-1-december21.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://amr.cdc.gov.bd/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/STG-guideline-for-antimicrobial-use-version-1.0-date-1-december21.pdf
14. Sizear, M. M. I., Nababan, H. Y., Siddique, Md. K. B., Islam, S., Paul, S., Paul, A. K., & Ahmed, S. M. (2019). Perceptions of appropriate treatment among the informal allopathic providers: insights from a qualitative study in two peri-urban areas in Bangladesh. BMC Health Services Research, 19, 424. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-019-4254-3
15. Sumon, S. A., Anwar, M. M. U., Akther, F. M., Priyanka, A. S., Tamanna, T., Rahman, A., … Harun, M. G. D. (2024). Perceptions of antibiotic stewardship programmes and determinants of antibiotic prescribing patterns among physicians in tertiary hospitals in Bangladesh: implications for future policy and practice. Journal of Hospital Infection, 144, 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jhin.2023.11.010
16. Atif, M., Azeem, M., Sarwar, M. R., Shahid, S., Javaid, S., Ikram, H., … Scahill, S. (2016). WHO/INRUD prescribing indicators and prescribing trends of antibiotics in the Accident and Emergency Department of Bahawal Victoria Hospital, Pakistan. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1928. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3615-1
17. Nuruzzaman, M., Zapata, T., McIsaac, M., Wangmo, S., Islam, M. J., Almamun, M., … Dussault, G. (2022). Informing investment in health workforce in Bangladesh: a health labour market analysis. Human Resources for Health, 20(1), 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-022-00769-2
18. Alam, E. B., Haque, M. A., Towhid, M. I. I., Khan, M. M. H., Fatema, K., Salwa, M., … Paul, B. K. (2023). Gender and other factors influencing the specialty choice among postgraduate medical students in Bangladesh, 2016-2020. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University Journal, 16(3), 152–159. https://doi.org/10.3329/bsmmuj.v16i3.67860
19. A Survey to Assess Job Satisfaction of Doctors in Bangladesh. (n.d.). International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI). Retrieved from https://rsisinternational.org/journals /ijrsi/articles/a-survey-to-assess-job-satisfaction-of-doctors-in-bangladesh/
20. Islam, M. A., & Awal, M. A. (2020). Factors Influencing Physicians’ Clinical Decision-making at Upazila Health Complexes in Bangladesh. Global Journal on Quality and Safety in Healthcare, 3(4), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.36401/JQSH-20-7
21. Nuruzzaman, M., Zapata, T., De Oliveira Cruz, V., Alam, S., Tune, S. N. B. K., & Joarder, T. (2022). Adopting workload-based staffing norms at public sector health facilities in Bangladesh: evidence from two districts. Human Resources for Health, 19(1), 151. https://doi.org/10.1186 /s12960-021-00697-7
22. Sulis, G., Adam, P., Nafade, V., Gore, G., Daniels, B., Daftary, A., … Pai, M. (2020). Antibiotic prescription practices in primary care in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Medicine, 17(6), e1003139. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed. 1003139
23. Van Dijck, C., Vlieghe, E., & Cox, J. A. (2018). Antibiotic stewardship interventions in hospitals in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 96(4), 266–280. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.17.203448
24. Goruntla, N., Ssesanga, J., Bommireddy, B. R., Thammisetty, D. P., Vishwanathasetty, V. K., Ezeonwumelu, J. O. C., & Bukke, S. P. N. (2023). Evaluation of Rational Drug Use Based on WHO/INRUD Core Drug Use Indicators in a Secondary Care Hospital: A Cross-Sectional Study in Western Uganda. Drug, Healthcare and Patient Safety, 15, 125–135. https://doi.org/10.2147/ DHPS.S424050
25. Amaha, N. D., Weldemariam, D. G., Abdu, N., & Tesfamariam, E. H. (2019). Prescribing practices using WHO prescribing indicators and factors associated with antibiotic prescribing in six community pharmacies in Asmara, Eritrea: a cross-sectional study. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 8(1), 163. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-019-0620-5
26. Holloway, K. A., & Henry, D. (2014). WHO Essential Medicines Policies and Use in Developing and Transitional Countries: An Analysis of Reported Policy Implementation and Medicines Use Surveys. PLOS Medicine, 11(9), e1001724. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001724
27. Cameron, A., Ewen, M., Ross-Degnan, D., Ball, D., & Laing, R. (2009). Medicine prices, availability, and affordability in 36 developing and middle-income countries: a secondary analysis. The Lancet, 373(9659), 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61762-6
28. Factors Influencing Physicians’ Clinical Decision-making at Upazila Health Complexes in Bangladesh | Global Journal on Quality and Safety in Healthcare. (n.d.). Retrieved May 23, 2025, from https://meridian.allenpress.com/innovationsjournals-JQSH/article/3/4/125/448797/ Factors-Influencing-Physicians-Clinical-Decision
29. Hailesilase, G. G., Welegebrial, B. G., Weres, M. G., & Gebrewahd, S. A. (2024). WHO/INRUD prescribing indicators with a focus on antibiotics utilization patterns at outpatient department of Adigrat general hospital, Tigrai, Ethiopia: a retrospective cross-sectional study. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 13(1), 133. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-024-01490-6
30. Singh, S. K., Sengupta, S., Antony, R., Bhattacharya, S., Mukhopadhyay, C., Ramasubramanian, V., … Versporten, A. (2019). Variations in antibiotic use across India: multi-centre study through Global Point Prevalence survey. Journal of Hospital Infection, 103(3), 280–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2019.05.014
31. Survey of the pattern of antibiotic dispensing in private pharmacies in Nepal | BMJ Open. (n.d.). Retrieved May 23, 2025, from https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/10/e032422?utm_ source=chatgpt.com
32. Mushtaq, S., Javed, F., Fatimah, M., Sohail Jafar, Z., Zaidi, S. T., Firdous, A., & Fatima, A. (2021). Assessment of Antibiotic Prescription Pattern Using who Prescribing Indicators and Aware Categorization of Antibiotics. Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences, 15(11), 2872–2875. https://doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs2115112872
33. Chizimu, J. Y., Mudenda, S., Yamba, K., Lukwesa, C., Chanda, R., Nakazwe, R., … Chilengi, R. (2024). Antibiotic use and adherence to the WHO AWaRe guidelines across 16 hospitals in Zambia: a point prevalence survey. JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance, 6(5), dlae170. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlae170
34. AWaRe classification of antibiotics for evaluation and monitoring of use, 2023. (n.d.). Retrieved May 23, 2025, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MHP-HPS-EML-2023.04
35. Singh, S. K., Sengupta, S., Antony, R., Bhattacharya, S., Mukhopadhyay, C., Ramasubramanian, V., … Versporten, A. (2019). Variations in antibiotic use across India: multi-centre study through Global Point Prevalence survey. The Journal of Hospital Infection, 103(3), 280–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2019.05.014
2. WHO. (2023, November 21). Antimicrobial resistance. Retrieved May 22, 2025, from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance
3. Llor, C., & Bjerrum, L. (2014). Antimicrobial resistance: risk associated with antibiotic overuse and initiatives to reduce the problem. Therapeutic Advances in Drug Safety, 5(6), 229–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/2042098614554919
4. Antibiotic Use in the United States, 2017: Progress and Opportunities | Antibiotic Use | CDC. (2020, November 13). Retrieved April 29, 2025, from https://archive.cdc.gov/www_cdc_gov /antibiotic-use/stewardship-report/2017.html
5. Islam, M., Islam, K., Dalal, K., & Hossain Hawlader, M. D. (2024). In-house environmental factors and childhood acute respiratory infections in under-five children: a hospital-based matched case-control study in Bangladesh. BMC Pediatrics, 24(1), 38. https://doi.org/10.1186 /s12887-024-04525-4
6. Hoque, R., Ahmed, S. M., Naher, N., Islam, M. A., Rousham, E. K., Islam, B. Z., & Hassan, S. (2020). Tackling antimicrobial resistance in Bangladesh: A scoping review of policy and practice in human, animal and environment sectors. PLOS ONE, 15(1), e0227947. https://doi.org/10.1371 /journal.pone.0227947
7. Ehsan, H. (2025). Antibiotic Resistance in Developing Countries: Emerging Threats and Policy Responses. Public Health Challenges, 4(1), e70034. https://doi.org/10.1002/puh2.70034
8. Biswas, M., Roy, D. N., Tajmim, A., Rajib, S. S., Hossain, M., Farzana, F., & Yasmen, N. (2014). Prescription antibiotics for outpatients in Bangladesh: a cross-sectional health survey conducted in three cities. Annals of Clinical Microbiology and Antimicrobials, 13(1), 15. https://doi.org/10 .1186/1476-0711-13-15
9. Chowdhury, S., Sarker, R., Khan, M. S. I., Ghosh, P. K., Tareq, M. A., & Begum, M. R. (2020). Prescribing Pattern of Antibiotics among Children in a Tertiary-Care Hospital, Bangladesh. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 41(S1), s356–s356. https://doi.org/10.1017 /ice.2020.976
10. Islam, M., Sultana, Z. Z., Iqbal, A., Ali, M., & Hossain, A. (2021). Effect of in-house crowding on childhood hospital admissions for acute respiratory infection: A matched case–control study in Bangladesh. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 105, 639–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2021.03.002
11. 2019 WHO AWaRe Classification Database of Antibiotics for evaluation and monitoring of use. (n.d.). Retrieved April 29, 2025, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHOEMP IAU2019.11
12. Guideline on Antimicrobial Consumption (AMC) Surveillance in Bangladesh. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://dgdagov.info/index.php/information-center/guidance-documents/2340-amc-surveillance-guideline-for-comments/file
13. STG-guideline-for-antimicrobial-use-version-1.0-date-1-december21.pdf. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://amr.cdc.gov.bd/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/STG-guideline-for-antimicrobial-use-version-1.0-date-1-december21.pdf
14. Sizear, M. M. I., Nababan, H. Y., Siddique, Md. K. B., Islam, S., Paul, S., Paul, A. K., & Ahmed, S. M. (2019). Perceptions of appropriate treatment among the informal allopathic providers: insights from a qualitative study in two peri-urban areas in Bangladesh. BMC Health Services Research, 19, 424. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-019-4254-3
15. Sumon, S. A., Anwar, M. M. U., Akther, F. M., Priyanka, A. S., Tamanna, T., Rahman, A., … Harun, M. G. D. (2024). Perceptions of antibiotic stewardship programmes and determinants of antibiotic prescribing patterns among physicians in tertiary hospitals in Bangladesh: implications for future policy and practice. Journal of Hospital Infection, 144, 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.jhin.2023.11.010
16. Atif, M., Azeem, M., Sarwar, M. R., Shahid, S., Javaid, S., Ikram, H., … Scahill, S. (2016). WHO/INRUD prescribing indicators and prescribing trends of antibiotics in the Accident and Emergency Department of Bahawal Victoria Hospital, Pakistan. SpringerPlus, 5(1), 1928. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-3615-1
17. Nuruzzaman, M., Zapata, T., McIsaac, M., Wangmo, S., Islam, M. J., Almamun, M., … Dussault, G. (2022). Informing investment in health workforce in Bangladesh: a health labour market analysis. Human Resources for Health, 20(1), 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12960-022-00769-2
18. Alam, E. B., Haque, M. A., Towhid, M. I. I., Khan, M. M. H., Fatema, K., Salwa, M., … Paul, B. K. (2023). Gender and other factors influencing the specialty choice among postgraduate medical students in Bangladesh, 2016-2020. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University Journal, 16(3), 152–159. https://doi.org/10.3329/bsmmuj.v16i3.67860
19. A Survey to Assess Job Satisfaction of Doctors in Bangladesh. (n.d.). International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation (IJRSI). Retrieved from https://rsisinternational.org/journals /ijrsi/articles/a-survey-to-assess-job-satisfaction-of-doctors-in-bangladesh/
20. Islam, M. A., & Awal, M. A. (2020). Factors Influencing Physicians’ Clinical Decision-making at Upazila Health Complexes in Bangladesh. Global Journal on Quality and Safety in Healthcare, 3(4), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.36401/JQSH-20-7
21. Nuruzzaman, M., Zapata, T., De Oliveira Cruz, V., Alam, S., Tune, S. N. B. K., & Joarder, T. (2022). Adopting workload-based staffing norms at public sector health facilities in Bangladesh: evidence from two districts. Human Resources for Health, 19(1), 151. https://doi.org/10.1186 /s12960-021-00697-7
22. Sulis, G., Adam, P., Nafade, V., Gore, G., Daniels, B., Daftary, A., … Pai, M. (2020). Antibiotic prescription practices in primary care in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLOS Medicine, 17(6), e1003139. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed. 1003139
23. Van Dijck, C., Vlieghe, E., & Cox, J. A. (2018). Antibiotic stewardship interventions in hospitals in low-and middle-income countries: a systematic review. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 96(4), 266–280. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.17.203448
24. Goruntla, N., Ssesanga, J., Bommireddy, B. R., Thammisetty, D. P., Vishwanathasetty, V. K., Ezeonwumelu, J. O. C., & Bukke, S. P. N. (2023). Evaluation of Rational Drug Use Based on WHO/INRUD Core Drug Use Indicators in a Secondary Care Hospital: A Cross-Sectional Study in Western Uganda. Drug, Healthcare and Patient Safety, 15, 125–135. https://doi.org/10.2147/ DHPS.S424050
25. Amaha, N. D., Weldemariam, D. G., Abdu, N., & Tesfamariam, E. H. (2019). Prescribing practices using WHO prescribing indicators and factors associated with antibiotic prescribing in six community pharmacies in Asmara, Eritrea: a cross-sectional study. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 8(1), 163. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-019-0620-5
26. Holloway, K. A., & Henry, D. (2014). WHO Essential Medicines Policies and Use in Developing and Transitional Countries: An Analysis of Reported Policy Implementation and Medicines Use Surveys. PLOS Medicine, 11(9), e1001724. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001724
27. Cameron, A., Ewen, M., Ross-Degnan, D., Ball, D., & Laing, R. (2009). Medicine prices, availability, and affordability in 36 developing and middle-income countries: a secondary analysis. The Lancet, 373(9659), 240–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61762-6
28. Factors Influencing Physicians’ Clinical Decision-making at Upazila Health Complexes in Bangladesh | Global Journal on Quality and Safety in Healthcare. (n.d.). Retrieved May 23, 2025, from https://meridian.allenpress.com/innovationsjournals-JQSH/article/3/4/125/448797/ Factors-Influencing-Physicians-Clinical-Decision
29. Hailesilase, G. G., Welegebrial, B. G., Weres, M. G., & Gebrewahd, S. A. (2024). WHO/INRUD prescribing indicators with a focus on antibiotics utilization patterns at outpatient department of Adigrat general hospital, Tigrai, Ethiopia: a retrospective cross-sectional study. Antimicrobial Resistance & Infection Control, 13(1), 133. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13756-024-01490-6
30. Singh, S. K., Sengupta, S., Antony, R., Bhattacharya, S., Mukhopadhyay, C., Ramasubramanian, V., … Versporten, A. (2019). Variations in antibiotic use across India: multi-centre study through Global Point Prevalence survey. Journal of Hospital Infection, 103(3), 280–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2019.05.014
31. Survey of the pattern of antibiotic dispensing in private pharmacies in Nepal | BMJ Open. (n.d.). Retrieved May 23, 2025, from https://bmjopen.bmj.com/content/9/10/e032422?utm_ source=chatgpt.com
32. Mushtaq, S., Javed, F., Fatimah, M., Sohail Jafar, Z., Zaidi, S. T., Firdous, A., & Fatima, A. (2021). Assessment of Antibiotic Prescription Pattern Using who Prescribing Indicators and Aware Categorization of Antibiotics. Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences, 15(11), 2872–2875. https://doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs2115112872
33. Chizimu, J. Y., Mudenda, S., Yamba, K., Lukwesa, C., Chanda, R., Nakazwe, R., … Chilengi, R. (2024). Antibiotic use and adherence to the WHO AWaRe guidelines across 16 hospitals in Zambia: a point prevalence survey. JAC-Antimicrobial Resistance, 6(5), dlae170. https://doi.org/10.1093/jacamr/dlae170
34. AWaRe classification of antibiotics for evaluation and monitoring of use, 2023. (n.d.). Retrieved May 23, 2025, from https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-MHP-HPS-EML-2023.04
35. Singh, S. K., Sengupta, S., Antony, R., Bhattacharya, S., Mukhopadhyay, C., Ramasubramanian, V., … Versporten, A. (2019). Variations in antibiotic use across India: multi-centre study through Global Point Prevalence survey. The Journal of Hospital Infection, 103(3), 280–283. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2019.05.014
Article Sidebar
Published
Jul 25, 2025
Article Details
How to Cite
Tahir Rahman, Khursheda Akhtar, & Nirvana Rahman. (2025). ANTIBIOTIC GUIDELINE ADHERENCE AND PRESCRIBING PATTERNS AMONG PHYSICIANS IN BANGLADESHI TERTIARY HOSPITALS. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 32(6), 1184-1196. https://doi.org/10.53555/jd15c683
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
All articles published in JPTCP are licensed under Copyright Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Author Biographies
Tahir Rahman
Department of Public Health and Hospital Administration, NIPSOM, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Khursheda Akhtar
Department of Public Health and Hospital Administration, NIPSOM, Dhaka, Bangladesh
Nirvana Rahman
Department of Ophthalmology, Bangladesh Medical University (BMU), Dhaka, Bangladesh
How to Cite
Tahir Rahman, Khursheda Akhtar, & Nirvana Rahman. (2025). ANTIBIOTIC GUIDELINE ADHERENCE AND PRESCRIBING PATTERNS AMONG PHYSICIANS IN BANGLADESHI TERTIARY HOSPITALS. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 32(6), 1184-1196. https://doi.org/10.53555/jd15c683