STRATEGIC OPPORTUNITIES FOR EFFECTIVE OPTIMAL PRESCRIBING AND MEDICATION MANAGEMENT
Main Article Content
Keywords
Prescribing behaviour, drug utilization, prescribing practice, medication management, drug use evaluation
Abstract
Background
Canadians receive over 422 million prescriptions and spend over $26 billion annually on drugs. Yet, we do not systematically capture information on whether the right drugs reach the right people with the intended benefits, while avoiding unintended harm. It is important to identify and understand the effectiveness of approaches used to improve prescribing and medication use.
Objective
To discuss the medication-use system, identify factors affecting prescribing, and assess effectiveness of interventions.
Methods
A literature review was conducted using electronic databases, federal agencies’, provincial health departments’, health service delivery organizations’ and Canadian health research organizations’ websites , the Internet, and some hand searching. Interventions identified were categorized according to the Effective Practice and Organization of Care Group (EPOC) classification, with effectiveness based on the literature.
Results
Factors affecting prescribing relate to the patient and society, medication, prescriber, practice environment and organization, available information and other external factors. Interventions reported as generally effective are multi-faceted interventions, academic detailing, and reminders. Interventions reported as sometimes effective are audit and feedback or physician profiling, local opinion leaders, drug utilization review, and local consensus guidelines. Passive dissemination of educational materials is deemed generally ineffective.
Conclusions
No single approach is appropriate for every prescribing problem, health professional prescriber practice or health care setting. Interventions to improve prescribing in community and institutional settings have variable effect sizes. Effectiveness is related to content, delivery mechanisms, intensity, intervention’s context, and implementation environment. Even an intervention with a small effect size (< 10%) may yield important changes in drug use when applied on a population basis. Further research and evaluation is needed to determine how or why the interventions work and identify barriers to effective implementation.
References
1. IMS Health Canada. Retail prescriptions dispensed in Canada, 2005-2007. Toronto, ON: IMS Health Canada; 2008.
2. Canadian Institute for Health Information. Drug expenditure in Canada, 1985 to 2007. Ottawa: CIHI; 2008.
3. First Minister's Meeting on the Future of Health Care 2004. 10-year plan to strengthen health care. Ottawa: Health Canada; 2004.
4. Federal/Provincial/Territorial Ministerial Task Force. National pharmaceuticals strategy progress report. Ottawa: Health Canada; June 2006.
5. Mays N, Pope C, Popay J. Systematically reviewing qualitative and quantitative evidence to inform management and policy-making in the health field. J Health Serv Res Policy 2005 Jul;10 Suppl 1:6-20.
6. Eccles M, Grimshaw J, Walker A, Johnston M, Pitts N. Changing the behavior of healthcare professionals: The use of theory in promoting the uptake of research findings. J Clin Epidemiol 2005 Feb;58(2):107-12.
7. Legare F, Stacey D, Graham ID, et al. Advancing theories, models and measurement for an interprofessional approach to shared decision making in primary care: A study protocol. BMC Health Serv Res 2008 Jan 3;8(1):2.
8. Perkins MB, Jensen PS, Jaccard J, et al. Applying theory-driven approaches to understanding and modifying clinicians' behavior: What do we know? Psychiatr Serv 2007 Mar;58(3):342-8.
9. Sales A, Smith J, Curran G, Kochevar L. Models, strategies, and tools. Theory in implementing evidence-based findings into health care practice. J Gen Intern Med 2006 Feb; 21 Suppl 2:S43-9.
10. Grol R, Wensing M. What drives change? barriers to and incentives for achieving evidence-based practice. Med J Australia 2004;180(6 Suppl: S 57- S60).
11. MacKinnon NJ, editor. Safe and effective: The eight essential elements of an optimal medication-use system. Ottawa, On, Canada: Canadian Pharmacists Association, 2007.
12. Canadian Institute for Health Information. Supply, distribution and migration of Canadian physicians, 2006. Ottawa: Canadian Institute of Health Research; 2007.
13. Alberta College of Pharmacists. New legislation: Frequently asked questions. http://pharmacists.ab.ca/newlegislation/faq.aspx (December1, 2006).
14. National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities. National Statistics 2007 http://www.napra.ca/napra_express/admin/editor .asp?id=6155&add (November 10, 2007).
15. IMS Health Canada. Drug store and hospital purchases, Canada, 1997-2007. Toronto, ON: IMS Health Canada; 2008.
16. Jones EJ, Mackinnon NJ, Tsuyuki RT. Pharmaceutical care in community pharmacies: Practice and research in Canada. Ann Pharmacother 2005 Sep;39(9):1527-33.
17. Bluml BM. Definition of medication therapy management: Development of profession-wide consensus. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash DC) 2005 Sep-Oct;45(5):566-72.
18. DaVanzo J, Dobson A, Book R. Medication therapy management services: A critical review. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2005;45(5):580-587.
19. Farris KB, Fernandez-Llimos F, Benrimoj SI. Pharmaceutical care in community pharmacies: Practice and research from around the world. Ann Pharmacother 2005 Sep;39(9):1539-41.
20. Rascati KL. The need for pharmacoeconomic studies of pharmacy services. Clinical Therapeutics 2007;29(7):1488.
21. Tsuyuki RT, Olson KL, Dubyk AM, Schindel TJ, Johnson JA. Effect of community pharmacist intervention on cholesterol levels in patients at high risk of cardiovascular events: The second study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists (SCRIP-plus). Am J Med 2004 Jan 15;116(2):130-3. 22. McLean W, Gillis J, Waller R. The BC community pharmacy asthma study: A study of clinical, economic and holistic outcomes influenced by an asthma care protocol provided by specially trained community pharmacists in British Columbia. Can Respir J. 2003 MayJun;10(4):195-202.
23. Tsuyuki RT, Johnson JA, Teo KK, et al. A randomized trial of the effect of community pharmacist intervention on cholesterol risk management: The study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists (SCRIP). Arch Intern Med 2002 May 27;162(10):1149-55.
24. Grymonpre RE, Steele JW. The medication information line for the elderly: An 8-year cumulative analysis. Ann Pharmacother 1998 Jul-Aug;32(7-8):743-8.
25. Yamada C, Johnson JA, Robertson P, Pearson G, Tsuyuki RT. Long-term impact of a community pharmacist intervention on cholesterol levels in patients at high risk for cardiovascular events: Extended follow-up of the second study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists (SCRIP-plus). Pharmacotherapy 2005 Jan;25(1):110-5.
26. Beney J, Bero LA, Bond C. Expanding the roles of outpatient pharmacists: Effects on health services utilization, costs, and patient outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; (3)(3):CD000336.
27. Sellors J, Kaczorowski J, Sellors C, et al. A randomized controlled trial of a pharmacist consultation program for family physicians and their elderly patients. CMAJ 2003 Jul 8;169(1):17-22. 28. Adler DA, Bungay KM, Wilson IB, et al. The impact of a pharmacist intervention on 6-month outcomes in depressed primary care patients. General Hospital Psychiatry 2004;26(3):199209.
29. O'Connor A. Using patient decision aids to promote evidence-based decision making. ACP J Club 2001 Jul-Aug;135(1):A11-2.
30. O'Connor AM, Rostom A, Fiset V, et al. Decision aids for patients facing health treatment or screening decisions: Systematic review. BMJ 1999 Sep 18;319(7212):731-4.
31. Kravitz RL, Melnikow J. Engaging patients in medical decision making. BMJ 2001 Sep 15;323(7313):584-5.
32. Molenaar S, Sprangers MA, Postma-Schuit FC, et al. Feasibility and effects of decision aids. Med Decis Making 2000 Jan-Mar;20(1):112-27.
33. Wirtz V, Cribb A, Barber N. Patient-doctor decision-making about treatment within the consultation--a critical analysis of models. Soc Sci Med 2006 Jan;62(1):116-24.
34. Nair KM, Dolovich LR, Ciliska DK, Lee HN. The perception of continuity of care from the perspective of patients with diabetes. Fam Med 2005 Feb;37(2):118-24.
35. Legare F, O'Connor AM, Graham ID, Wells GA, Tremblay S. Impact of the Ottawa decision support framework on the agreement and the difference between patients' and physicians' decisional conflict. Med Decis Making 2006 JulAug;26(4):373-90.
36. Alvarez R. Annual review breakfast with the chiefs. Canada Health Infoway: Vancouver BC, 2006 April 20. http://www.longwoods.com/website/events/docs /BWTCVAlvarezApr202006.pdf (January 7, 2009)
37. IMS insights: Pharmaceutical trends - retail prescriptions dispensed in Canada 2005. http://www.imshealthcanada.com/vgn/images/po rtal/cit_40000873/20/45/79014574PharmaTrend s01.pdf (December 10, 2006).
38. Health Canada. Regulatory review of pharmaceuticals, biologics and medical devices: 2005 annual summary of performance. Ottawa: Health Products and Food Branch; 2005.
39. Haynes RB. McMaster PLUS: A cluster randomized clinical trial of an intervention to accelerate clinical use of evidence-based information from digital libraries. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2006;13(6):593.
40. Ashworth M, Golding S, Majeed A. Prescribing indicators and their use by primary care groups to influence prescribing. J Clin Pharm Ther 2002 Jun;27(3):197-204.
41. Barber N, Bradley C, Barry C, Stevenson F, Britten N, Jenkins L. Measuring the appropriateness of prescribing in primary care: Are current measures complete? J Clin Pharm Ther 2005 Dec;30(6):533-9.
42. Fick DM, Cooper JW, Wade WE, Waller JL, Maclean JR, Beers MH. Updating the beers criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults: Results of a US consensus panel of experts. Arch Intern Med 2003 Dec 8- 22;163(22):2716-24.
43. Tully MP, Cantrill JA. The validity of explicit indicators of prescribing appropriateness. Int J Qual Health Care 2006 Apr;18(2):87-94.
44. MacKinnon N, Sketris I. Pharmaceutical outcomes. In: Encyclopedia of Clinical Pharmacy. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002:701-6.
45. Spinewine A, Schmader KE, Barber N, et al. Appropriate prescribing in elderly people: How well can it be measured and optimised? Lancet 2007 Jul 14;370(9582):173-84.
46. Avorn J. Improving drug use in elderly patients: Getting to the next level. JAMA 2001 Dec 12;286(22):2866-8.
47. Shaw B, Cheater F, Baker R, et al. Tailored interventions to overcome identified barriers to change: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005 Jul 20;(3)(3):CD005470.
48. Cochrane effective practice and organization of care group (EPOC). http://www.epoc.cochrane.org/ (October 10, 2008).
49. Grol R, Grimshaw J. From best evidence to best practice: Effective implementation of change in patients' care. Lancet 2003 Oct 11;362(9391):1225-30.
50. Stevenson FA, Greenfield SM, Jones M, Nayak A, Bradley CP. GPs' perceptions of patient influence on prescribing. Fam Pract 1999 Jun;16(3):255-61.
51. Bradley CP. Factors which influence the decision whether or not to prescribe: The dilemma facing general practitioners. Br J Gen Pract 1992 Nov;42(364):454-8.
52. McKinlay JB, Potter DA, Feldman HA. Nonmedical influences on medical decision-making. Soc Sci Med 1996 Mar;42(5):769-76.
53. Tamblyn R, McLeod P, Hanley JA, Girard N, Hurley J. Physician and practice characteristics associated with the early utilization of new prescription drugs. Med Care 2003 Aug;41(8):895-908.
54. Fortin M, Lapointe L, Hudon C, Vanasse A, Ntetu AL, Maltais D. Multimorbidity and quality of life in primary care: A systematic review. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2004 Sep 20;2:51.
55. Charles C, Gafni A, Whelan T. Decision-making in the physician-patient encounter: Revisiting the shared treatment decision-making model. Soc Sci Med 1999 Sep;49(5):651-61.
56. Eddy DM. Clinical decision making: From theory to practice. Anatomy of a decision. JAMA 1990 Jan 19;263(3):441-3.
57. Kasje WN, Denig P, De Graeff PA, Haaijer- Ruskamp FM. Physicians' views on joint treatment guidelines for primary and secondary care. Int J Qual Health Care 2004 Jun;16(3):229- 36.
58. Arroll B, Kenealy T, Kerse N. Do delayed prescriptions reduce antibiotic use in respiratory tract infections? A systematic review. Br J Gen Pract 2003 Nov;53(496):871-7.
59. Arroll B, Goodyear-Smith F, Thomas DR, Kerse N. Delayed antibiotic prescriptions: What are the experiences and attitudes of physicians and patients? J Fam Pract 2002 Nov;51(11):954-9.
60. Little P. Delayed prescribing--a sensible approach to the management of acute otitis media. JAMA 2006 Sep 13;296(10):1290-1.
61. Little P, Gould C, Williamson I, Moore M, Warner G, Dunleavey J. Pragmatic randomised controlled trial of two prescribing strategies for childhood acute otitis media. BMJ 2001 Feb 10;322(7282):336-42.
62. Kenny N. Some ethical reflections on accountability. Health Pap 2006;7(1):65,71; discussion 74-7.
63. Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, Hemminki E. The social aspects of drug use. Finland: WHO Regional Publications; 1993. Report No.: 45.
64. Mol PG, Denig P, Gans RO, et al. Limited effect of patient and disease characteristics on compliance with hospital antimicrobial guidelines. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2006 Apr;62(4):297-305.
65. Gardner DM, MacKinnon NJ, Langille DB, Andreou P. A comparison of factors used by physicians and patients in the selection of antidepressant agents. Psychiatric Services 2007;58(1):34-40.
66. Tracy CS, Dantas GC, Moineddin R, Upshur RE. Contextual factors in clinical decision making: National survey of Canadian family physicians. Can Fam Physician 2005 Aug;51:1106-7.
67. Denig P, Wahlstrom R, de Saintonge MC, Haaijer-Ruskamp F. The value of clinical judgment analysis for improving the quality of doctors' prescribing decisions. Med Educ 2002 Aug;36(8):770-80.
68. Denig P, Witteman CL, Schouten HW. Scope and nature of prescribing decisions made by general practitioners. Qual Saf Health Care 2002 Jun;11(2):137-43.
69. Greenfield S, Bryan S, Gill P, Gutridge K, Marshall T. Factors influencing clinicians' decisions to prescribe medication to prevent coronary heart disease. J Clin Pharm Ther 2005 Feb;30(1):77-84.
70. Henriksen K, Hansen EH. The threatened self: General practitioners' self-perception in relation to prescribing medicine. Soc Sci Med 2004 Jul;59(1):47-55.
71. Prosser H, Walley T. New drug uptake: Qualitative comparison of high and low prescribing GPs' attitudes and approach. Fam Pract 2003 Oct;20(5):583-91.
72. Henry SG. Recognizing tacit knowledge in medical epistemology. Theor Med Bioeth 2006;27(3):187-213.
73. Denig P, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, Zijsling DH. How physicians choose drugs. Soc Sci Med 1988;27(12):1381-6.
74. Denig P, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, Wesseling H, Versluis A. Impact of clinical trials on the e120 adoption of new drugs within a university hospital. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1991;41(4):3258.
75. Groves KEM, Flanagan PS, MacKinnon NJ. Why physicians start or stop prescribing a drug: Literature review and formulary implications. Formulary 2002 April 2002;37:186-94.
76. Tamblyn R, Abrahamowicz M, Dauphinee WD, et al. Association between licensure examination scores and practice in primary care. JAMA 2002 Dec 18;288(23):3019-26.
77. Tamblyn R, Abrahamowicz M, Dauphinee D, et al. Effect of a community oriented problem based learning curriculum on quality of primary care delivered by graduates: Historical cohort comparison study. BMJ 2005 Oct 29;331(7523):1002.
78. McManus P, Henry DA, Birkett DJ. Recent changes in the profile of prescription NSAID use in Australia. Med J Aust 2000 Feb 21;172(4):188.
79. Choudhry NK, Fletcher RH, Soumerai SB. Systematic review: The relationship between clinical experience and quality of health care. Ann Intern Med 2005;142(4):260-273.
80. Burge F, Kephart G, Flowerdew G, et al. Physician characteristics in relation to cardiovascular drugs commonly prescribed for hypertension in Nova Scotia. Can J Clin Pharmacol 2001 Fall;8(3):139-45.
81. Jacoby A, Smith M, Eccles M. A qualitative study to explore influences on general practitioners' decisions to prescribe new drugs. Br J Gen Pract 2003 Feb;53(487):120-5.
82. Ashworth M, Armstrong D, Lloyd D, Colwill S. The effects on GP prescribing of joining a commissioning group. J Clin Pharm Ther 2002 Jun;27(3):221-8.
83. Prosser H, Almond S, Walley T. Influences on GPs' decision to prescribe new drugs-the importance of who says what. Fam Pract 2003 Feb;20(1):61-8.
84. Avorn J, Chen M, Hartley R. Scientific versus commercial sources of influence on the prescribing behavior of physicians. Am J Med 1982 Jul;73(1):4-8.
85. Jones MI, Greenfield SM, Bradley CP. Prescribing new drugs: Qualitative study of influences on consultants and general practitioners. BMJ 2001 Aug 18;323(7309):378- 81.
86. Watkins C, Moore L, Harvey I, Carthy P, Robinson E, Brawn R. Characteristics of general practitioners who frequently see drug industry representatives: National cross sectional study. BMJ 2003 May 31;326(7400):1178-9.
87. Majumdar SR, McAlister FA, Soumerai SB. Synergy between publication and promotion: Comparing adoption of new evidence in Canada and the United States. Am J Med 2003 Oct 15;115(6):467-72.
88. Majumdar SR, Lipton HL, Soumerai SB. Evaluating and improving physician prescribing. In: Strom BL, ed. Pharmacoepidemiology, 3 ed. Sussex, England: John Wiley; 2005:420-437.
89. Schumock GT, Walton SM, Park HY, et al. Factors that influence prescribing decisions. Ann Pharmacother 2004 Apr;38(4):557-62.
90. Wazana A. Physicians and the pharmaceutical industry: Is a gift ever just a gift? JAMA 2000 Jan 19;283(3):373-80.
91. Guldal D, Semin S. The influences of drug companies' advertising programs on physicians. Int J Health Serv 2000;30(3):585-95.
92. Molloy W, Strang D, Guyatt G, et al. Assessing the quality of drug detailing. J Clin Epidemiol 2002 Aug;55(8):825-32.
93. Lexchin J. Should doctors be prescribing new drugs? International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine 2002;15:213-22.
94. Sketris I, Langille Ingram E, Lummis H. Optimal prescribing and medication use in Canada: Challenges and opportunities. Ottawa, Ontario: Health Council of Canada; May 2007.
95. Ma J, Stafford RS, Cockburn IM, Finkelstein SN. A statistical analysis of the magnitude and composition of drug promotion in the United States in 1998. Clin Ther 2003 May;25(5):150317.
96. Rosenthal MB, Berndt ER, Donohue JM, Frank RG, Epstein AM. Promotion of prescription drugs to consumers. N Engl J Med 2002 Feb 14;346(7):498-505.
97. Holmer AF. Direct-to-consumer advertising-strengthening our health care system. N Engl J Med 2002 Feb 14;346(7):526-8.
98. Mintzes B, Barer ML, Kravitz RL, et al. How does direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) affect prescribing? A survey in primary care environments with and without legal DTCA. CMAJ 2003 Sep 2;169(5):405-12.
99. Mintzes B, Barer ML, Kravitz RL, et al. Influence of direct to consumer pharmaceutical advertising and patients' requests on prescribing decisions: Two site cross sectional survey. BMJ 2002 Feb 2;324(7332):278-9.
100. Mintzes B. Direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription drugs in Canada: What are the public health implications? Health Council of Canada; January 2006.
101. Berndt ER. To inform or persuade? Direct-toconsumer advertising of prescription drugs. N Engl J Med 2005 Jan 27;352(4):325-8.
102. Galbally R. Review of drugs, poisons and controlled substances legislation (the Galbally Review): Final report. Presented to the Australian Ministers’ Conference (AHMC), Australia January 2001. http://www.tga.gov.au/docs/pdf/rdpfina.pdf (January 9, 2009)
103. Cassels A, Hughes MA, Cole C, Mintzes B, Lexchin J, McCormack JP. Drugs in the news: An analysis of Canadian newspaper coverage of new prescription drugs. CMAJ 2003 Apr 29;168(9):1133-7.
104. Kerridge I, Lowe M, Henry D. Ethics and evidence based medicine. BMJ 1998 Apr 11;316(7138):1151-3.
105. Moynihan R, Bero L, Ross-Degnan D, et al. Coverage by the news media of the benefits and risks of medications. N Engl J Med 2000 Jun 1;342(22):1645-50.
106. Tugwell P, Robinson V, Grimshaw J, Santesso N. Systematic reviews and knowledge translation. Bull World Health Organ 2006 Aug;84(8):643-51.
107. Walley T, Earl-Slater A, Haycox A, Bagust A. An integrated national pharmaceutical policy for the United Kingdom? BMJ 2000 Dec 16;321(7275):1523-6.
108. Grimshaw JM, Eccles MP, Greener J, et al. Is the involvement of opinion leaders in the implementation of research findings a feasible strategy? Implement Sci 2006 Feb 22;1:3.
109. Grimshaw JM, Santesso N, Cumpston M, Mayhew A, McGowan J. Knowledge for knowledge translation: The role of the Cochrane Collaboration. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2006 Winter;26(1):55-62.
110. Pearson SA, Ross-Degnan D, Payson A, Soumerai SB. Changing medication use in managed care: A critical review of the available evidence. Am J Manag Care 2003 Nov;9(11):715-31.
111. Freemantle N. Implementation strategies. Fam Pract 2000 Feb;17 Suppl 1:S7-10.
112. Mason J, Freemantle N, Nazareth I, Eccles M, Haines A, Drummond M. When is it costeffective to change the behavior of health professionals? JAMA 2001 Dec 19;286(23):2988-92.
113. Davis D, Evans M, Jadad A, et al. The case for knowledge translation: Shortening the journey from evidence to effect. BMJ 2003 Jul 5;327(7405):33-5.
114. Mazmanian PE, Fried PO. Regulations. In: Fox RD, Mazmanian PE, Putnam RW, editors. Changing and Learning in the Lives of Physicians. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1989:135-50.
115. Putnam W, Twohig PL, Burge FI, Jackson LA, Cox JL. A qualitative study of evidence in primary care: What the practitioners are sayi ng. CMAJ 2002 Jun 11;166(12):1525-30.
116. Grimshaw JM, Eccles MP, Walker AE, Thomas RE. Changing physicians' behavior: What works and thoughts on getting more things to work. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2002 Fall;22(4):23743.
117. Grol R, Grimshaw J. Evidence-based implementation of evidence-based medicine. Jt Comm J Qual Improv 1999 Oct;25(10):503-13.
118. Grimshaw J. So what has the Cochrane Collaboration ever done for us? A report card on the first 10 years. CMAJ 2004 Sep 28;171(7):747-9.
119. Grol R, Wensing M. Selection of strategies. In: Grol R, Eccles M, Wensing M, editors. Improving Patient Care: The implementation of change in clinical practice. Edinburgh: Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, 2005.
120. Grimshaw J, Eccles M, Tetroe J. Implementing clinical guidelines: Current evidence and future implications. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2004 Fall;24 Suppl 1:S31-7.
121. Kephart G, Sketris IS, Bowles SK, Richard ME, Cooke CA. Impact of a criteria-based reimbursement policy on the use of respiratory drugs delivered by nebulizer and health care services utilization in Nova Scotia, Canada. Pharmacotherapy 2005 Sep;25(9):1248-57.
122. Grimshaw JM, Thomas RE, MacLennan G, et al. Effectiveness and efficiency of guideline dissemination and implementation strategies. Health Technol Assess 2004 Feb;8(6):iii,iv, 172.
123. Wensing M, Grol R. Multifaceted interventions. In: Grol R, Wensing M, Eccles M, editors. Improving patient care: The implementation of change in clinical practice. Edinburgh: Elsevier Limited, 2005:197-206.
124. Jamtvedt G, Young JM, Kristoffersen DT, O'Brien MA, Oxman AD. Audit and feedback: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006 Apr 19;(2)(2):CD000259.
125. Oxman AD, Thomson MA, Davis DA, Haynes RB. No magic bullets: A systematic review of 102 trials of interventions to improve professional practice. CMAJ 1995 Nov 15;153(10):1423-31.
126. Wright J, Bibby J, Eastham J, et al. Multifaceted implementation of stroke prevention guidelines in primary care: Cluster-randomized evaluation of clinical and cost effectiveness. Qual Saf Health Care 2007 February 1;16(1):51-9.
127. Maclure M, Carleton B, Schneeweiss S. Designed delays versus rigorous pragmatic trials: Lower carat gold standards can produce relevant drug evaluations. Med Care.2007 Oct;45(10 Supl 2):S44-9.
128. Maclure M, Allen M, Bacovsky R, et al. Show me the evidence: Best practices for using educational visits to promote evidence-based prescribing. A project of the Canadian academic detailing collaboration and drug policy futures. Victoria, B.C.: Canadian Academic Detailing Collaboration and Drug Policy Futures; June 2006.
129. Bacovsky R, Maclure M, Nguyen A, et al. Canadian academic detailing collaboration: Evaluating processes and outcomes of academic detailing. CPJ 2006;139(2):54-7.
130. Graham S, Frail D, Sketris I, Allen M. The Dalhousie academic detailing service: Designing an intervention on the topic of osteoarthritis. In: MacKinnon NJ, editor. Safe and Effective: the eight essential elements of an optimal medication-use system. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Pharmacists Association, 2007.
131. Kondro W. Academic drug detailing: An evidence-based alternative. CMAJ 2007 Feb 13;176(4):429-31.
132. Eccles M, Steen I, Whitty P, Hall L. Is untargeted educational outreach visiting delivered by pharmaceutical advisers effective in primary care? A pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Implementation science 2007;2:23.
133. Grimshaw JM, Eccles MP. Is evidence-based implementation of evidence-based care possible? Med J Aust 2004 Mar 15;180(6 Suppl):S50-1.
134. Coenen S, Van Royen P, Michiels B, Denekens J. Optimizing antibiotic prescribing for acute cough in general practice: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004 Sep;54(3):661-72.
135. Solomon DH, Van Houten L, Glynn RJ, et al. Academic detailing to improve use of broadspectrum antibiotics at an academic medical center. Arch Intern Med 2001 Aug 1327;161(15):1897-902.
136. Weekes LM, Mackson JM, Fitzgerald M, Phillips SR. National prescribing service: Creating an implementation arm for national medicines policy. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2005 Jan;59(1):112-6.
137. Bloom BS. Effects of continuing medical education on improving physician clinical care and patient health: A review of systematic reviews. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 2005 Summer;21(3):380-5.
138. Freemantle N, Nazareth I, Eccles M, Wood J, Haines A, Evidence-based OutReach trialists. A randomised controlled trial of the effect of educational outreach by community pharmacists on prescribing in UK general practice. Br J Gen Pract 2002 Apr;52(477):290-5.
139. Arnold SR, Straus SE. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices in ambulatory care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005 Oct 19;(4)(4):CD003539.
140. O'Brien MA, Rogers S, Jamtvedt G, et al. Educational outreach visits: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007 Oct 17;(4)(4):CD000409.
141. Eccles M, Steen I, Whitty P, Hall L. Is untargeted educational outreach visiting delivered by pharmaceutical advisers effective in primary care? A pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Implementation Science 2007;2(1):23.
142. Foy R, Eccles MP, Jamtvedt G, Young J, Grimshaw JM, Baker R. What do we know about how to do audit and feedback? Pitfalls in applying evidence from a systematic review. BMC Health Serv Res 2005 Jul 13;5:50.
143. The Improved Clinical Effectiveness through Behavioural Research Group (ICEBeRG). Designing theoretically-informed implementation interventions. Implement Sci 2006 Feb 23;1:4.
144. Freemantle N, Eccles M, Wood J, et al. A randomized trial of evidence-based OutReach (EBOR): Rationale and design. Control Clin Trials 1999 Oct;20(5):479-92.
145. Janssens I, De Meyere M, Habraken H, et al. Barriers to academic detailers: A qualitative study in general practice. Eur J Gen Pract 2005 Jun;11(2):59-63.
146. Allen M, Ferrier S, O'Connor N, Fleming I. Family physicians' perceptions of academic detailing: A quantitative and qualitative study. BMC Med Educ 2007 Oct 12;7:36.
147. Beilby J, Wutzke SE, Bowman J, Mackson JM, Weekes LM. Evaluation of a national quality use of medicines service in Australia: An evolving model. J Eval Clin Pract 2006 Apr;12(2):202-17.
148. Mandryk JA, Mackson JM, Horn FE, et al. Measuring change in prescription drug utilization in Australia. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2006 Jul;15(7):477-84.
149. Wutzke SE, Artist MA, Kehoe LA, Fletcher M, Mackson JM, Weekes LM. Evaluation of a national programme to reduce inappropriate use of antibiotics for upper respiratory tract infections: Effects on consumer awareness, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour in Australia. Health Promot Int 2007 Mar;22(1):53-64.
150. Graham SD, Hartzema AG, Sketris IS, Winterstein AG. Effect of an academic detailing intervention on the utilization rate of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors in the elderly. Ann Pharmacother 2008 Jun;42(6):749-56.
151. Graham L, Sketris I, Burge F, Edwards L. The effect of a primary care intervention on management of patients with diabetes and hypertension: A pre-post intervention chart audit. Healthc Q 2006;9(2):62-71.
152. van der Weijden T, Grol R. Feedback and reminders. In: Grol R, Wensing M, Eccles M, editors. Improving Patient Care: The implementation of change in clinical practice. Edinburgh: Elsevier Limited, 2005:158-72.
153. Tamblyn R, Huang A, Perreault R, et al. The medical office of the 21st century (MOXXI): Effectiveness of computerized decision-making support in reducing inappropriate prescribing in primary care. CMAJ 2003 09/16;169(6):549-56.
154. Sketris IS, Kephart G, Cooke CA, Skedgel CD, McLean-Veysey PR, Drug Evaluation Alliance of Nova Scotia. Use of physician profiles to influence prescribing of topical corticosteroids. Can J Clin Pharmacol 2005 Summer;12(2):e186-97.
155. MacKinnon NJ, Lipowski EE. Opinions on provider profiling: Telephone survey of stakeholders. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2000;57(17):1585-91.
156. Yaffe MJ, Gupta G, Still S, et al. Morbidity and mortality audits: "how to" for family practice. Can Fam Physician 2005 Feb;51:234-9.
157. Physician profiling, guiding principles-American academy of family physicians. http://www.aafp.org/online/en/home/policy/poli cies/p/physicianprofiling.html (May 1, 2007).
158. Welch HG, Miller ME, Welch WP. Physician profiling -- an analysis of inpatient practice patterns in Florida and Oregon. N Engl J Med 1994 Mar 3;330(9):607-12.
159. Hux JE, Melady MP, DeBoer D. Confidential prescriber feedback and education to improve antibiotic use in primary care: A controlled trial. CMAJ 1999 Aug 24;161(4):388-92.
160. Pimlott NJ, Hux JE, Wilson LM, Kahan M, Li C, Rosser WW. Educating physicians to reduce benzodiazepine use by elderly patients: A randomized controlled trial. CMAJ 2003 Apr 1;168(7):835-9.
161. Veninga CC, Denig P, Zwaagstra R, Haaijer- Ruskamp FM. Improving drug treatment in general practice. J Clin Epidemiol 2000 Jul;53(7):762-72.
162. Weiss KB, Wagner R. Performance measurement through audit, feedback, and profiling as tools for improving clinical care. Chest 2000 Aug;118(2 Suppl):53S-8S.
163. Smith WR. Evidence for the effectiveness of techniques to change physician behavior. Chest 2000 Aug;118 (2 Suppl):8S-17S.
164. Bloor K, Freemantle N. Lessons from international experience in controlling pharmaceutical expenditure. II: Influencing doctors. BMJ 1996 Jun 15;312(7045):1525-7.
165. Chapman SR. Prescribing information systems; making sense of primary care data. J Clin Pharm Ther 2001 Aug;26(4):235-9.
166. Primary care prescribing: A bulletin for primary care trusts. 2003 http://www.audit- commission.gov.uk/reports/NATIONALREPORT.asp?CategoryID=&ProdID=4BB7323 0-58A6-11d7-B28A-0060085F8572 (November 11, 2008).
167. Chapman S, Reeve E, Price D, Rajaratnam G, Neary R. Outcomes guarantee for lipid-lowering drugs: Results from a novel approach to risk sharing in primary care. Br J Cardiol 2004 May/June;11(3):205-10.
168. Grol R. Personal paper. Beliefs and evidence in changing clinical practice. BMJ 1997;315(7105):418.
169. Bindman AB. Can physician profiles be trusted? JAMA 1999 Jun 9;281(22):2142-3.
170. MacKinnon NJ, Lipowski EE. Opinions on provider profiling: Telephone survey of stakeholders. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2000 Sep 1;57(17):1585-91.
171. Grzybowski S, Lirenman D, White MI. Identifying educational influentials for formal and informal continuing medical education in the province of British Columbia. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2000 Spring;20(2):85-90.
172. Murphy AL, Fleming M, Martin-Misener R, Sketris IS, Maccara M, Gass D. Drug information resources used by nurse practitioners and collaborating physicians at the point of care in Nova Scotia, Canada: A survey and review of the literature. BMC Nurs 2006 Jul 6;5:5.
173. Doumit G, Gattellari M, Grimshaw J, O'Brien MA. Local opinion leaders: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006 Jan 24(3):CD00125.
174. Doumit G. Local opinion leaders: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007 Jan 24(1):CD000125.
175. Majumdar SR, Tsuyuki RT, McAlister FA. Impact of opinion leader-endorsed evidence summaries on the quality of prescribing for patients with cardiovascular disease: A randomized controlled trial. American Heart Journal 2007;153(1):22.
176. Grindrod KA, Patel P, Martin JE. What interventions should pharmacists employ to impact health practitioners' prescribing practices? Ann Pharmacother 2006 Sep;40(9):1546-57.
177. Maue SK, Segal R, Kimberlin CL, Lipowski EE. Predicting physician guideline compliance: An assessment of motivators and perceived barriers. Am J Manag Care 2004 Jun;10(6):383-91.
178. Soumerai SB, McLaughlin TJ, Gurwitz JH, et al. Effect of local medical opinion leaders on quality of care for acute myocardial infarction: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998 May 6;279(17):1358-63.
179. Sbarbaro JA. Can we influence prescribing patterns? Clin Infect Dis 2001 Sep 15;33 Suppl 3:S240-4.
180. Antman EM, Lau J, Kupelnick B, Mosteller F, Chalmers TC. A comparison of results of metaanalyses of randomized control trials and recommendations of clinical experts: treatments for myocardial infarction. JAMA 1992 Jul 8;268(2):240-8.
181. Fulda TR, Lyles A, Pugh MC, Christensen DB. Current status of prospective drug utilization review. J Manag Care Pharm 2004;10(5):433.
182. Spooner CH, Pickard AS, Menon D. Drug utilization reviews of oral quinolone, cephalosporin, and macrolide use in nonacute care: A systematic review. Clin Ther 1999 Nov;21(11):1951-72.
183. Berger ML, Bingefors K, Hedblom EC, Pasjos CL, Torrance GW, editors. Health care cost, quality, and outcomes: ISPOR book of terms. Lawewnceville, NJ: International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research, 2003.
184. Gregoire JP, Moisan J, Potvin L, Chabot I, Verreault R, Milot A. Effect of drug utilization reviews on the quality of in-hospital prescribing: A quasi-experimental study. BMC Health Serv Res 2006 Mar 14;6:33.
185. Hennessy S, Bilker WB, Zhou L, et al. Retrospective drug utilization review, prescribing errors, and clinical outcomes. JAMA 2003 Sep 17;290(11):1494-9.
186. Monane M. Improving prescribing patterns for the elderly through an online drug utilization review intervention: A system linking the physician, pharmacist, and computer. JAMA 1998;280(14):1249.
187. Wettermark B, Vlahovic-Palcevski V, Blix HS, Ronning M, Vander Stichele RH. Drug utilization review. In: Hartzema AG, Tilson HH, Chan KA, editors. Pharmacoepidemiology and Therapeutic Risk Management. Cincinnati, Ohio: Harvey Whitney Books Company, 2008:159-95.
188. Moore WJ, Gutermuth K, Pracht EE. Systemwide effects of medicaid retrospective drug utilization review programs. J Health Polit Policy Law 2000 Aug;25(4):653-88.
189. Spooner CH, Pickard AS, Menon D. Edmonton quality assessment tool for drug utilization reviews: EQUATDUR-2: The development of a scale to assess the methodological quality of a drug utilization review. Med Care 2000 Sep;38(9):948-58.
190. Every NR, Hochman J, Becker R, Kopecky S, Cannon CP. Critical pathways: A review. Committee on acute cardiac care, Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation 2000 Feb 1;101(4):4615.
191. Karuza J, Calkins E, Feather J, Hershey CO, Katz L, Majeroni B. Enhancing physician adoption of practice guidelines - dissemination of influenza vaccination guideline using a smallgroup consensus process. Arch Intern Med 1995;155(6):625.
192. Sommers LS, Sholtz R, Shepherd RM, Starkweather DB. Physician involvement in quality assurance. Med Care 1984;22(12):1115.
193. Wright J, Bibby J, Eastham J, et al. Multifaceted implementation of stroke prevention guidelines in primary care: Cluster-randomised evaluation of clinical and cost effectiveness. Qual Saf Health Care 2007 Feb;16(1):51-9.
194. Wright J, Harrison S, McGeorge M, et al. Improving the management and referral of patients with transient ischaemic attacks: A change strategy for a health community. Qual Saf Health Care 2006 Feb;15(1):9-12.
195. Wright J, Warren E, Reeves J, et al. Effectiveness of multifaceted implementation of guidelines in primary care. J Health Serv Res Policy 2003 Jul;8(3):142-8.
196. Cabana MD, Rand CS, Powe NR, et al. Why don't physicians follow clinical practice guidelines? A framework for improvement. JAMA 1999 Oct 20;282(15):1458-65.
197. Shojania KG, Grimshaw JM. Still no magic bullets: Pursuing more rigorous research in quality improvement. Am J Med 2004 Jun 1;116(11):778-80.
198. Berta W, Teare GF, Gilbart E, et al. The contingencies of organizational learning in long- term care: Factors that affect innovation adoption. Health Care Manage Rev 2005 OctDec;30(4):282-92.
199. Rashidian A, Russell I. Towards better prescribing – a model for implementing clinical guidelines in primary care organizations in the NHS. Clinical Governance: An International Journal 2003;8(1):26-32.
200. AGREE collaboration. http://www.agreecollaboration.org/ (Nov 11, 2008).
201. Network notes III: Communities of practice. www.chsrf.ca/networks (Nov 11, 2008).
202. Davis DA, Taylor-Vaisey A. Translating guidelines into practice: A systematic review of theoretic concepts, practical experience and research evidence in the adoption of clinical practice guidelines. CMAJ 1997;157(4):408-16.
203. Grol R, Wensing M, Eccles M, editors. Improving patient care: The implementation of change in clinical practice. Edinburgh: Elsevier Limited., 2005.
204. Graham ID, Beardall S, Carter AO, et al. What is the quality of drug therapy clinical practice guidelines in Canada? CMAJ 2001 Jul 24;165(2):157-63.
205. Davis D, Palda V, Drazin Y, Rogers J. Assessing and scaling the knowledge pyramid: The good-guideline guide. CMAJ 2006 Jan 31;174(3):337-8.
206. Dormuth CR, Maclure M, Bassett K, Jauca C, Whiteside C, Wright JM. Effect of periodic letters on evidence-based drug therapy on prescribing behaviour: A randomized trial. CMAJ 2004 Oct 26;171(9):1057-61.
207. Sargeant J, Curran V, Allen M, Jarvis-Selinger S, Ho K. Facilitating interpersonal interaction and learning online: Linking theory and practice. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2006 Spring;26(2):128-36.
208. Sargeant J, Curran V, Jarvis-Selinger S, et al. Interactive on-line continuing medical education: Physicians' perceptions and experiences. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2004 Fall;24(4):227-36.
209. Harris SB, Leiter LA, Webster-Bogaert S, Van DM, O'Neill C. Teleconferenced educational detailing: Diabetes education for primary care physicians. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2005 Spring;25(2):87-97.
210. Ho K, Cockalingam A, Best A, Walsh G, JarvisSelinger S, (Editors). Technology enabled knowledge translation workshop: Current best practices in innovation, evaluation, and future directions final report. March 27-28, 2003; Vancouver, B.C. University of British Columbia Continuing Medical Education; 2003.
211. Davis DA, Thomson MA, Oxman AD, Haynes RB. Changing physician performance. A systematic review of the effect of continuing medical education strategies. JAMA 1995 Sep 6;274(9):700-5.
212. Cox JL. Optimizing disease management at a health care system level: The rationale and methods of the improving cardiovascular outcomes in Nova Scotia (ICONS) study. Can J Cardiol 1999 Jul;15(7):787-96.
213. O'Brien MA, Freemantle N, Oxman AD, Wolf F, Davis DA, Herrin J. Continuing education meetings and workshops: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes (review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;(2)(2):CD003030.
214. Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, Denig P. Impact of feedback and peer review on prescribing. Occas Pap R Coll Gen Pract 1995 Feb;(69):13-9.
215. Paulsen E, Fretheim A, Oxman AD. Local consensus processes: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes (protocol). 2007 (Issue 1. Art. No.: CD003165. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003165.pub3.).
2. Canadian Institute for Health Information. Drug expenditure in Canada, 1985 to 2007. Ottawa: CIHI; 2008.
3. First Minister's Meeting on the Future of Health Care 2004. 10-year plan to strengthen health care. Ottawa: Health Canada; 2004.
4. Federal/Provincial/Territorial Ministerial Task Force. National pharmaceuticals strategy progress report. Ottawa: Health Canada; June 2006.
5. Mays N, Pope C, Popay J. Systematically reviewing qualitative and quantitative evidence to inform management and policy-making in the health field. J Health Serv Res Policy 2005 Jul;10 Suppl 1:6-20.
6. Eccles M, Grimshaw J, Walker A, Johnston M, Pitts N. Changing the behavior of healthcare professionals: The use of theory in promoting the uptake of research findings. J Clin Epidemiol 2005 Feb;58(2):107-12.
7. Legare F, Stacey D, Graham ID, et al. Advancing theories, models and measurement for an interprofessional approach to shared decision making in primary care: A study protocol. BMC Health Serv Res 2008 Jan 3;8(1):2.
8. Perkins MB, Jensen PS, Jaccard J, et al. Applying theory-driven approaches to understanding and modifying clinicians' behavior: What do we know? Psychiatr Serv 2007 Mar;58(3):342-8.
9. Sales A, Smith J, Curran G, Kochevar L. Models, strategies, and tools. Theory in implementing evidence-based findings into health care practice. J Gen Intern Med 2006 Feb; 21 Suppl 2:S43-9.
10. Grol R, Wensing M. What drives change? barriers to and incentives for achieving evidence-based practice. Med J Australia 2004;180(6 Suppl: S 57- S60).
11. MacKinnon NJ, editor. Safe and effective: The eight essential elements of an optimal medication-use system. Ottawa, On, Canada: Canadian Pharmacists Association, 2007.
12. Canadian Institute for Health Information. Supply, distribution and migration of Canadian physicians, 2006. Ottawa: Canadian Institute of Health Research; 2007.
13. Alberta College of Pharmacists. New legislation: Frequently asked questions. http://pharmacists.ab.ca/newlegislation/faq.aspx (December1, 2006).
14. National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities. National Statistics 2007 http://www.napra.ca/napra_express/admin/editor .asp?id=6155&add (November 10, 2007).
15. IMS Health Canada. Drug store and hospital purchases, Canada, 1997-2007. Toronto, ON: IMS Health Canada; 2008.
16. Jones EJ, Mackinnon NJ, Tsuyuki RT. Pharmaceutical care in community pharmacies: Practice and research in Canada. Ann Pharmacother 2005 Sep;39(9):1527-33.
17. Bluml BM. Definition of medication therapy management: Development of profession-wide consensus. J Am Pharm Assoc (Wash DC) 2005 Sep-Oct;45(5):566-72.
18. DaVanzo J, Dobson A, Book R. Medication therapy management services: A critical review. J Am Pharm Assoc. 2005;45(5):580-587.
19. Farris KB, Fernandez-Llimos F, Benrimoj SI. Pharmaceutical care in community pharmacies: Practice and research from around the world. Ann Pharmacother 2005 Sep;39(9):1539-41.
20. Rascati KL. The need for pharmacoeconomic studies of pharmacy services. Clinical Therapeutics 2007;29(7):1488.
21. Tsuyuki RT, Olson KL, Dubyk AM, Schindel TJ, Johnson JA. Effect of community pharmacist intervention on cholesterol levels in patients at high risk of cardiovascular events: The second study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists (SCRIP-plus). Am J Med 2004 Jan 15;116(2):130-3. 22. McLean W, Gillis J, Waller R. The BC community pharmacy asthma study: A study of clinical, economic and holistic outcomes influenced by an asthma care protocol provided by specially trained community pharmacists in British Columbia. Can Respir J. 2003 MayJun;10(4):195-202.
23. Tsuyuki RT, Johnson JA, Teo KK, et al. A randomized trial of the effect of community pharmacist intervention on cholesterol risk management: The study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists (SCRIP). Arch Intern Med 2002 May 27;162(10):1149-55.
24. Grymonpre RE, Steele JW. The medication information line for the elderly: An 8-year cumulative analysis. Ann Pharmacother 1998 Jul-Aug;32(7-8):743-8.
25. Yamada C, Johnson JA, Robertson P, Pearson G, Tsuyuki RT. Long-term impact of a community pharmacist intervention on cholesterol levels in patients at high risk for cardiovascular events: Extended follow-up of the second study of cardiovascular risk intervention by pharmacists (SCRIP-plus). Pharmacotherapy 2005 Jan;25(1):110-5.
26. Beney J, Bero LA, Bond C. Expanding the roles of outpatient pharmacists: Effects on health services utilization, costs, and patient outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000; (3)(3):CD000336.
27. Sellors J, Kaczorowski J, Sellors C, et al. A randomized controlled trial of a pharmacist consultation program for family physicians and their elderly patients. CMAJ 2003 Jul 8;169(1):17-22. 28. Adler DA, Bungay KM, Wilson IB, et al. The impact of a pharmacist intervention on 6-month outcomes in depressed primary care patients. General Hospital Psychiatry 2004;26(3):199209.
29. O'Connor A. Using patient decision aids to promote evidence-based decision making. ACP J Club 2001 Jul-Aug;135(1):A11-2.
30. O'Connor AM, Rostom A, Fiset V, et al. Decision aids for patients facing health treatment or screening decisions: Systematic review. BMJ 1999 Sep 18;319(7212):731-4.
31. Kravitz RL, Melnikow J. Engaging patients in medical decision making. BMJ 2001 Sep 15;323(7313):584-5.
32. Molenaar S, Sprangers MA, Postma-Schuit FC, et al. Feasibility and effects of decision aids. Med Decis Making 2000 Jan-Mar;20(1):112-27.
33. Wirtz V, Cribb A, Barber N. Patient-doctor decision-making about treatment within the consultation--a critical analysis of models. Soc Sci Med 2006 Jan;62(1):116-24.
34. Nair KM, Dolovich LR, Ciliska DK, Lee HN. The perception of continuity of care from the perspective of patients with diabetes. Fam Med 2005 Feb;37(2):118-24.
35. Legare F, O'Connor AM, Graham ID, Wells GA, Tremblay S. Impact of the Ottawa decision support framework on the agreement and the difference between patients' and physicians' decisional conflict. Med Decis Making 2006 JulAug;26(4):373-90.
36. Alvarez R. Annual review breakfast with the chiefs. Canada Health Infoway: Vancouver BC, 2006 April 20. http://www.longwoods.com/website/events/docs /BWTCVAlvarezApr202006.pdf (January 7, 2009)
37. IMS insights: Pharmaceutical trends - retail prescriptions dispensed in Canada 2005. http://www.imshealthcanada.com/vgn/images/po rtal/cit_40000873/20/45/79014574PharmaTrend s01.pdf (December 10, 2006).
38. Health Canada. Regulatory review of pharmaceuticals, biologics and medical devices: 2005 annual summary of performance. Ottawa: Health Products and Food Branch; 2005.
39. Haynes RB. McMaster PLUS: A cluster randomized clinical trial of an intervention to accelerate clinical use of evidence-based information from digital libraries. J Am Med Inform Assoc 2006;13(6):593.
40. Ashworth M, Golding S, Majeed A. Prescribing indicators and their use by primary care groups to influence prescribing. J Clin Pharm Ther 2002 Jun;27(3):197-204.
41. Barber N, Bradley C, Barry C, Stevenson F, Britten N, Jenkins L. Measuring the appropriateness of prescribing in primary care: Are current measures complete? J Clin Pharm Ther 2005 Dec;30(6):533-9.
42. Fick DM, Cooper JW, Wade WE, Waller JL, Maclean JR, Beers MH. Updating the beers criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults: Results of a US consensus panel of experts. Arch Intern Med 2003 Dec 8- 22;163(22):2716-24.
43. Tully MP, Cantrill JA. The validity of explicit indicators of prescribing appropriateness. Int J Qual Health Care 2006 Apr;18(2):87-94.
44. MacKinnon N, Sketris I. Pharmaceutical outcomes. In: Encyclopedia of Clinical Pharmacy. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 2002:701-6.
45. Spinewine A, Schmader KE, Barber N, et al. Appropriate prescribing in elderly people: How well can it be measured and optimised? Lancet 2007 Jul 14;370(9582):173-84.
46. Avorn J. Improving drug use in elderly patients: Getting to the next level. JAMA 2001 Dec 12;286(22):2866-8.
47. Shaw B, Cheater F, Baker R, et al. Tailored interventions to overcome identified barriers to change: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005 Jul 20;(3)(3):CD005470.
48. Cochrane effective practice and organization of care group (EPOC). http://www.epoc.cochrane.org/ (October 10, 2008).
49. Grol R, Grimshaw J. From best evidence to best practice: Effective implementation of change in patients' care. Lancet 2003 Oct 11;362(9391):1225-30.
50. Stevenson FA, Greenfield SM, Jones M, Nayak A, Bradley CP. GPs' perceptions of patient influence on prescribing. Fam Pract 1999 Jun;16(3):255-61.
51. Bradley CP. Factors which influence the decision whether or not to prescribe: The dilemma facing general practitioners. Br J Gen Pract 1992 Nov;42(364):454-8.
52. McKinlay JB, Potter DA, Feldman HA. Nonmedical influences on medical decision-making. Soc Sci Med 1996 Mar;42(5):769-76.
53. Tamblyn R, McLeod P, Hanley JA, Girard N, Hurley J. Physician and practice characteristics associated with the early utilization of new prescription drugs. Med Care 2003 Aug;41(8):895-908.
54. Fortin M, Lapointe L, Hudon C, Vanasse A, Ntetu AL, Maltais D. Multimorbidity and quality of life in primary care: A systematic review. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2004 Sep 20;2:51.
55. Charles C, Gafni A, Whelan T. Decision-making in the physician-patient encounter: Revisiting the shared treatment decision-making model. Soc Sci Med 1999 Sep;49(5):651-61.
56. Eddy DM. Clinical decision making: From theory to practice. Anatomy of a decision. JAMA 1990 Jan 19;263(3):441-3.
57. Kasje WN, Denig P, De Graeff PA, Haaijer- Ruskamp FM. Physicians' views on joint treatment guidelines for primary and secondary care. Int J Qual Health Care 2004 Jun;16(3):229- 36.
58. Arroll B, Kenealy T, Kerse N. Do delayed prescriptions reduce antibiotic use in respiratory tract infections? A systematic review. Br J Gen Pract 2003 Nov;53(496):871-7.
59. Arroll B, Goodyear-Smith F, Thomas DR, Kerse N. Delayed antibiotic prescriptions: What are the experiences and attitudes of physicians and patients? J Fam Pract 2002 Nov;51(11):954-9.
60. Little P. Delayed prescribing--a sensible approach to the management of acute otitis media. JAMA 2006 Sep 13;296(10):1290-1.
61. Little P, Gould C, Williamson I, Moore M, Warner G, Dunleavey J. Pragmatic randomised controlled trial of two prescribing strategies for childhood acute otitis media. BMJ 2001 Feb 10;322(7282):336-42.
62. Kenny N. Some ethical reflections on accountability. Health Pap 2006;7(1):65,71; discussion 74-7.
63. Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, Hemminki E. The social aspects of drug use. Finland: WHO Regional Publications; 1993. Report No.: 45.
64. Mol PG, Denig P, Gans RO, et al. Limited effect of patient and disease characteristics on compliance with hospital antimicrobial guidelines. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2006 Apr;62(4):297-305.
65. Gardner DM, MacKinnon NJ, Langille DB, Andreou P. A comparison of factors used by physicians and patients in the selection of antidepressant agents. Psychiatric Services 2007;58(1):34-40.
66. Tracy CS, Dantas GC, Moineddin R, Upshur RE. Contextual factors in clinical decision making: National survey of Canadian family physicians. Can Fam Physician 2005 Aug;51:1106-7.
67. Denig P, Wahlstrom R, de Saintonge MC, Haaijer-Ruskamp F. The value of clinical judgment analysis for improving the quality of doctors' prescribing decisions. Med Educ 2002 Aug;36(8):770-80.
68. Denig P, Witteman CL, Schouten HW. Scope and nature of prescribing decisions made by general practitioners. Qual Saf Health Care 2002 Jun;11(2):137-43.
69. Greenfield S, Bryan S, Gill P, Gutridge K, Marshall T. Factors influencing clinicians' decisions to prescribe medication to prevent coronary heart disease. J Clin Pharm Ther 2005 Feb;30(1):77-84.
70. Henriksen K, Hansen EH. The threatened self: General practitioners' self-perception in relation to prescribing medicine. Soc Sci Med 2004 Jul;59(1):47-55.
71. Prosser H, Walley T. New drug uptake: Qualitative comparison of high and low prescribing GPs' attitudes and approach. Fam Pract 2003 Oct;20(5):583-91.
72. Henry SG. Recognizing tacit knowledge in medical epistemology. Theor Med Bioeth 2006;27(3):187-213.
73. Denig P, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, Zijsling DH. How physicians choose drugs. Soc Sci Med 1988;27(12):1381-6.
74. Denig P, Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, Wesseling H, Versluis A. Impact of clinical trials on the e120 adoption of new drugs within a university hospital. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1991;41(4):3258.
75. Groves KEM, Flanagan PS, MacKinnon NJ. Why physicians start or stop prescribing a drug: Literature review and formulary implications. Formulary 2002 April 2002;37:186-94.
76. Tamblyn R, Abrahamowicz M, Dauphinee WD, et al. Association between licensure examination scores and practice in primary care. JAMA 2002 Dec 18;288(23):3019-26.
77. Tamblyn R, Abrahamowicz M, Dauphinee D, et al. Effect of a community oriented problem based learning curriculum on quality of primary care delivered by graduates: Historical cohort comparison study. BMJ 2005 Oct 29;331(7523):1002.
78. McManus P, Henry DA, Birkett DJ. Recent changes in the profile of prescription NSAID use in Australia. Med J Aust 2000 Feb 21;172(4):188.
79. Choudhry NK, Fletcher RH, Soumerai SB. Systematic review: The relationship between clinical experience and quality of health care. Ann Intern Med 2005;142(4):260-273.
80. Burge F, Kephart G, Flowerdew G, et al. Physician characteristics in relation to cardiovascular drugs commonly prescribed for hypertension in Nova Scotia. Can J Clin Pharmacol 2001 Fall;8(3):139-45.
81. Jacoby A, Smith M, Eccles M. A qualitative study to explore influences on general practitioners' decisions to prescribe new drugs. Br J Gen Pract 2003 Feb;53(487):120-5.
82. Ashworth M, Armstrong D, Lloyd D, Colwill S. The effects on GP prescribing of joining a commissioning group. J Clin Pharm Ther 2002 Jun;27(3):221-8.
83. Prosser H, Almond S, Walley T. Influences on GPs' decision to prescribe new drugs-the importance of who says what. Fam Pract 2003 Feb;20(1):61-8.
84. Avorn J, Chen M, Hartley R. Scientific versus commercial sources of influence on the prescribing behavior of physicians. Am J Med 1982 Jul;73(1):4-8.
85. Jones MI, Greenfield SM, Bradley CP. Prescribing new drugs: Qualitative study of influences on consultants and general practitioners. BMJ 2001 Aug 18;323(7309):378- 81.
86. Watkins C, Moore L, Harvey I, Carthy P, Robinson E, Brawn R. Characteristics of general practitioners who frequently see drug industry representatives: National cross sectional study. BMJ 2003 May 31;326(7400):1178-9.
87. Majumdar SR, McAlister FA, Soumerai SB. Synergy between publication and promotion: Comparing adoption of new evidence in Canada and the United States. Am J Med 2003 Oct 15;115(6):467-72.
88. Majumdar SR, Lipton HL, Soumerai SB. Evaluating and improving physician prescribing. In: Strom BL, ed. Pharmacoepidemiology, 3 ed. Sussex, England: John Wiley; 2005:420-437.
89. Schumock GT, Walton SM, Park HY, et al. Factors that influence prescribing decisions. Ann Pharmacother 2004 Apr;38(4):557-62.
90. Wazana A. Physicians and the pharmaceutical industry: Is a gift ever just a gift? JAMA 2000 Jan 19;283(3):373-80.
91. Guldal D, Semin S. The influences of drug companies' advertising programs on physicians. Int J Health Serv 2000;30(3):585-95.
92. Molloy W, Strang D, Guyatt G, et al. Assessing the quality of drug detailing. J Clin Epidemiol 2002 Aug;55(8):825-32.
93. Lexchin J. Should doctors be prescribing new drugs? International Journal of Risk & Safety in Medicine 2002;15:213-22.
94. Sketris I, Langille Ingram E, Lummis H. Optimal prescribing and medication use in Canada: Challenges and opportunities. Ottawa, Ontario: Health Council of Canada; May 2007.
95. Ma J, Stafford RS, Cockburn IM, Finkelstein SN. A statistical analysis of the magnitude and composition of drug promotion in the United States in 1998. Clin Ther 2003 May;25(5):150317.
96. Rosenthal MB, Berndt ER, Donohue JM, Frank RG, Epstein AM. Promotion of prescription drugs to consumers. N Engl J Med 2002 Feb 14;346(7):498-505.
97. Holmer AF. Direct-to-consumer advertising-strengthening our health care system. N Engl J Med 2002 Feb 14;346(7):526-8.
98. Mintzes B, Barer ML, Kravitz RL, et al. How does direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) affect prescribing? A survey in primary care environments with and without legal DTCA. CMAJ 2003 Sep 2;169(5):405-12.
99. Mintzes B, Barer ML, Kravitz RL, et al. Influence of direct to consumer pharmaceutical advertising and patients' requests on prescribing decisions: Two site cross sectional survey. BMJ 2002 Feb 2;324(7332):278-9.
100. Mintzes B. Direct-to-consumer advertising of prescription drugs in Canada: What are the public health implications? Health Council of Canada; January 2006.
101. Berndt ER. To inform or persuade? Direct-toconsumer advertising of prescription drugs. N Engl J Med 2005 Jan 27;352(4):325-8.
102. Galbally R. Review of drugs, poisons and controlled substances legislation (the Galbally Review): Final report. Presented to the Australian Ministers’ Conference (AHMC), Australia January 2001. http://www.tga.gov.au/docs/pdf/rdpfina.pdf (January 9, 2009)
103. Cassels A, Hughes MA, Cole C, Mintzes B, Lexchin J, McCormack JP. Drugs in the news: An analysis of Canadian newspaper coverage of new prescription drugs. CMAJ 2003 Apr 29;168(9):1133-7.
104. Kerridge I, Lowe M, Henry D. Ethics and evidence based medicine. BMJ 1998 Apr 11;316(7138):1151-3.
105. Moynihan R, Bero L, Ross-Degnan D, et al. Coverage by the news media of the benefits and risks of medications. N Engl J Med 2000 Jun 1;342(22):1645-50.
106. Tugwell P, Robinson V, Grimshaw J, Santesso N. Systematic reviews and knowledge translation. Bull World Health Organ 2006 Aug;84(8):643-51.
107. Walley T, Earl-Slater A, Haycox A, Bagust A. An integrated national pharmaceutical policy for the United Kingdom? BMJ 2000 Dec 16;321(7275):1523-6.
108. Grimshaw JM, Eccles MP, Greener J, et al. Is the involvement of opinion leaders in the implementation of research findings a feasible strategy? Implement Sci 2006 Feb 22;1:3.
109. Grimshaw JM, Santesso N, Cumpston M, Mayhew A, McGowan J. Knowledge for knowledge translation: The role of the Cochrane Collaboration. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2006 Winter;26(1):55-62.
110. Pearson SA, Ross-Degnan D, Payson A, Soumerai SB. Changing medication use in managed care: A critical review of the available evidence. Am J Manag Care 2003 Nov;9(11):715-31.
111. Freemantle N. Implementation strategies. Fam Pract 2000 Feb;17 Suppl 1:S7-10.
112. Mason J, Freemantle N, Nazareth I, Eccles M, Haines A, Drummond M. When is it costeffective to change the behavior of health professionals? JAMA 2001 Dec 19;286(23):2988-92.
113. Davis D, Evans M, Jadad A, et al. The case for knowledge translation: Shortening the journey from evidence to effect. BMJ 2003 Jul 5;327(7405):33-5.
114. Mazmanian PE, Fried PO. Regulations. In: Fox RD, Mazmanian PE, Putnam RW, editors. Changing and Learning in the Lives of Physicians. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1989:135-50.
115. Putnam W, Twohig PL, Burge FI, Jackson LA, Cox JL. A qualitative study of evidence in primary care: What the practitioners are sayi ng. CMAJ 2002 Jun 11;166(12):1525-30.
116. Grimshaw JM, Eccles MP, Walker AE, Thomas RE. Changing physicians' behavior: What works and thoughts on getting more things to work. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2002 Fall;22(4):23743.
117. Grol R, Grimshaw J. Evidence-based implementation of evidence-based medicine. Jt Comm J Qual Improv 1999 Oct;25(10):503-13.
118. Grimshaw J. So what has the Cochrane Collaboration ever done for us? A report card on the first 10 years. CMAJ 2004 Sep 28;171(7):747-9.
119. Grol R, Wensing M. Selection of strategies. In: Grol R, Eccles M, Wensing M, editors. Improving Patient Care: The implementation of change in clinical practice. Edinburgh: Elsevier Butterworth Heinemann, 2005.
120. Grimshaw J, Eccles M, Tetroe J. Implementing clinical guidelines: Current evidence and future implications. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2004 Fall;24 Suppl 1:S31-7.
121. Kephart G, Sketris IS, Bowles SK, Richard ME, Cooke CA. Impact of a criteria-based reimbursement policy on the use of respiratory drugs delivered by nebulizer and health care services utilization in Nova Scotia, Canada. Pharmacotherapy 2005 Sep;25(9):1248-57.
122. Grimshaw JM, Thomas RE, MacLennan G, et al. Effectiveness and efficiency of guideline dissemination and implementation strategies. Health Technol Assess 2004 Feb;8(6):iii,iv, 172.
123. Wensing M, Grol R. Multifaceted interventions. In: Grol R, Wensing M, Eccles M, editors. Improving patient care: The implementation of change in clinical practice. Edinburgh: Elsevier Limited, 2005:197-206.
124. Jamtvedt G, Young JM, Kristoffersen DT, O'Brien MA, Oxman AD. Audit and feedback: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006 Apr 19;(2)(2):CD000259.
125. Oxman AD, Thomson MA, Davis DA, Haynes RB. No magic bullets: A systematic review of 102 trials of interventions to improve professional practice. CMAJ 1995 Nov 15;153(10):1423-31.
126. Wright J, Bibby J, Eastham J, et al. Multifaceted implementation of stroke prevention guidelines in primary care: Cluster-randomized evaluation of clinical and cost effectiveness. Qual Saf Health Care 2007 February 1;16(1):51-9.
127. Maclure M, Carleton B, Schneeweiss S. Designed delays versus rigorous pragmatic trials: Lower carat gold standards can produce relevant drug evaluations. Med Care.2007 Oct;45(10 Supl 2):S44-9.
128. Maclure M, Allen M, Bacovsky R, et al. Show me the evidence: Best practices for using educational visits to promote evidence-based prescribing. A project of the Canadian academic detailing collaboration and drug policy futures. Victoria, B.C.: Canadian Academic Detailing Collaboration and Drug Policy Futures; June 2006.
129. Bacovsky R, Maclure M, Nguyen A, et al. Canadian academic detailing collaboration: Evaluating processes and outcomes of academic detailing. CPJ 2006;139(2):54-7.
130. Graham S, Frail D, Sketris I, Allen M. The Dalhousie academic detailing service: Designing an intervention on the topic of osteoarthritis. In: MacKinnon NJ, editor. Safe and Effective: the eight essential elements of an optimal medication-use system. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Pharmacists Association, 2007.
131. Kondro W. Academic drug detailing: An evidence-based alternative. CMAJ 2007 Feb 13;176(4):429-31.
132. Eccles M, Steen I, Whitty P, Hall L. Is untargeted educational outreach visiting delivered by pharmaceutical advisers effective in primary care? A pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Implementation science 2007;2:23.
133. Grimshaw JM, Eccles MP. Is evidence-based implementation of evidence-based care possible? Med J Aust 2004 Mar 15;180(6 Suppl):S50-1.
134. Coenen S, Van Royen P, Michiels B, Denekens J. Optimizing antibiotic prescribing for acute cough in general practice: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004 Sep;54(3):661-72.
135. Solomon DH, Van Houten L, Glynn RJ, et al. Academic detailing to improve use of broadspectrum antibiotics at an academic medical center. Arch Intern Med 2001 Aug 1327;161(15):1897-902.
136. Weekes LM, Mackson JM, Fitzgerald M, Phillips SR. National prescribing service: Creating an implementation arm for national medicines policy. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2005 Jan;59(1):112-6.
137. Bloom BS. Effects of continuing medical education on improving physician clinical care and patient health: A review of systematic reviews. Int J Technol Assess Health Care 2005 Summer;21(3):380-5.
138. Freemantle N, Nazareth I, Eccles M, Wood J, Haines A, Evidence-based OutReach trialists. A randomised controlled trial of the effect of educational outreach by community pharmacists on prescribing in UK general practice. Br J Gen Pract 2002 Apr;52(477):290-5.
139. Arnold SR, Straus SE. Interventions to improve antibiotic prescribing practices in ambulatory care. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005 Oct 19;(4)(4):CD003539.
140. O'Brien MA, Rogers S, Jamtvedt G, et al. Educational outreach visits: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007 Oct 17;(4)(4):CD000409.
141. Eccles M, Steen I, Whitty P, Hall L. Is untargeted educational outreach visiting delivered by pharmaceutical advisers effective in primary care? A pragmatic randomized controlled trial. Implementation Science 2007;2(1):23.
142. Foy R, Eccles MP, Jamtvedt G, Young J, Grimshaw JM, Baker R. What do we know about how to do audit and feedback? Pitfalls in applying evidence from a systematic review. BMC Health Serv Res 2005 Jul 13;5:50.
143. The Improved Clinical Effectiveness through Behavioural Research Group (ICEBeRG). Designing theoretically-informed implementation interventions. Implement Sci 2006 Feb 23;1:4.
144. Freemantle N, Eccles M, Wood J, et al. A randomized trial of evidence-based OutReach (EBOR): Rationale and design. Control Clin Trials 1999 Oct;20(5):479-92.
145. Janssens I, De Meyere M, Habraken H, et al. Barriers to academic detailers: A qualitative study in general practice. Eur J Gen Pract 2005 Jun;11(2):59-63.
146. Allen M, Ferrier S, O'Connor N, Fleming I. Family physicians' perceptions of academic detailing: A quantitative and qualitative study. BMC Med Educ 2007 Oct 12;7:36.
147. Beilby J, Wutzke SE, Bowman J, Mackson JM, Weekes LM. Evaluation of a national quality use of medicines service in Australia: An evolving model. J Eval Clin Pract 2006 Apr;12(2):202-17.
148. Mandryk JA, Mackson JM, Horn FE, et al. Measuring change in prescription drug utilization in Australia. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2006 Jul;15(7):477-84.
149. Wutzke SE, Artist MA, Kehoe LA, Fletcher M, Mackson JM, Weekes LM. Evaluation of a national programme to reduce inappropriate use of antibiotics for upper respiratory tract infections: Effects on consumer awareness, beliefs, attitudes and behaviour in Australia. Health Promot Int 2007 Mar;22(1):53-64.
150. Graham SD, Hartzema AG, Sketris IS, Winterstein AG. Effect of an academic detailing intervention on the utilization rate of cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors in the elderly. Ann Pharmacother 2008 Jun;42(6):749-56.
151. Graham L, Sketris I, Burge F, Edwards L. The effect of a primary care intervention on management of patients with diabetes and hypertension: A pre-post intervention chart audit. Healthc Q 2006;9(2):62-71.
152. van der Weijden T, Grol R. Feedback and reminders. In: Grol R, Wensing M, Eccles M, editors. Improving Patient Care: The implementation of change in clinical practice. Edinburgh: Elsevier Limited, 2005:158-72.
153. Tamblyn R, Huang A, Perreault R, et al. The medical office of the 21st century (MOXXI): Effectiveness of computerized decision-making support in reducing inappropriate prescribing in primary care. CMAJ 2003 09/16;169(6):549-56.
154. Sketris IS, Kephart G, Cooke CA, Skedgel CD, McLean-Veysey PR, Drug Evaluation Alliance of Nova Scotia. Use of physician profiles to influence prescribing of topical corticosteroids. Can J Clin Pharmacol 2005 Summer;12(2):e186-97.
155. MacKinnon NJ, Lipowski EE. Opinions on provider profiling: Telephone survey of stakeholders. Am J Health-Syst Pharm 2000;57(17):1585-91.
156. Yaffe MJ, Gupta G, Still S, et al. Morbidity and mortality audits: "how to" for family practice. Can Fam Physician 2005 Feb;51:234-9.
157. Physician profiling, guiding principles-American academy of family physicians. http://www.aafp.org/online/en/home/policy/poli cies/p/physicianprofiling.html (May 1, 2007).
158. Welch HG, Miller ME, Welch WP. Physician profiling -- an analysis of inpatient practice patterns in Florida and Oregon. N Engl J Med 1994 Mar 3;330(9):607-12.
159. Hux JE, Melady MP, DeBoer D. Confidential prescriber feedback and education to improve antibiotic use in primary care: A controlled trial. CMAJ 1999 Aug 24;161(4):388-92.
160. Pimlott NJ, Hux JE, Wilson LM, Kahan M, Li C, Rosser WW. Educating physicians to reduce benzodiazepine use by elderly patients: A randomized controlled trial. CMAJ 2003 Apr 1;168(7):835-9.
161. Veninga CC, Denig P, Zwaagstra R, Haaijer- Ruskamp FM. Improving drug treatment in general practice. J Clin Epidemiol 2000 Jul;53(7):762-72.
162. Weiss KB, Wagner R. Performance measurement through audit, feedback, and profiling as tools for improving clinical care. Chest 2000 Aug;118(2 Suppl):53S-8S.
163. Smith WR. Evidence for the effectiveness of techniques to change physician behavior. Chest 2000 Aug;118 (2 Suppl):8S-17S.
164. Bloor K, Freemantle N. Lessons from international experience in controlling pharmaceutical expenditure. II: Influencing doctors. BMJ 1996 Jun 15;312(7045):1525-7.
165. Chapman SR. Prescribing information systems; making sense of primary care data. J Clin Pharm Ther 2001 Aug;26(4):235-9.
166. Primary care prescribing: A bulletin for primary care trusts. 2003 http://www.audit- commission.gov.uk/reports/NATIONALREPORT.asp?CategoryID=&ProdID=4BB7323 0-58A6-11d7-B28A-0060085F8572 (November 11, 2008).
167. Chapman S, Reeve E, Price D, Rajaratnam G, Neary R. Outcomes guarantee for lipid-lowering drugs: Results from a novel approach to risk sharing in primary care. Br J Cardiol 2004 May/June;11(3):205-10.
168. Grol R. Personal paper. Beliefs and evidence in changing clinical practice. BMJ 1997;315(7105):418.
169. Bindman AB. Can physician profiles be trusted? JAMA 1999 Jun 9;281(22):2142-3.
170. MacKinnon NJ, Lipowski EE. Opinions on provider profiling: Telephone survey of stakeholders. Am J Health Syst Pharm 2000 Sep 1;57(17):1585-91.
171. Grzybowski S, Lirenman D, White MI. Identifying educational influentials for formal and informal continuing medical education in the province of British Columbia. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2000 Spring;20(2):85-90.
172. Murphy AL, Fleming M, Martin-Misener R, Sketris IS, Maccara M, Gass D. Drug information resources used by nurse practitioners and collaborating physicians at the point of care in Nova Scotia, Canada: A survey and review of the literature. BMC Nurs 2006 Jul 6;5:5.
173. Doumit G, Gattellari M, Grimshaw J, O'Brien MA. Local opinion leaders: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006 Jan 24(3):CD00125.
174. Doumit G. Local opinion leaders: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007 Jan 24(1):CD000125.
175. Majumdar SR, Tsuyuki RT, McAlister FA. Impact of opinion leader-endorsed evidence summaries on the quality of prescribing for patients with cardiovascular disease: A randomized controlled trial. American Heart Journal 2007;153(1):22.
176. Grindrod KA, Patel P, Martin JE. What interventions should pharmacists employ to impact health practitioners' prescribing practices? Ann Pharmacother 2006 Sep;40(9):1546-57.
177. Maue SK, Segal R, Kimberlin CL, Lipowski EE. Predicting physician guideline compliance: An assessment of motivators and perceived barriers. Am J Manag Care 2004 Jun;10(6):383-91.
178. Soumerai SB, McLaughlin TJ, Gurwitz JH, et al. Effect of local medical opinion leaders on quality of care for acute myocardial infarction: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998 May 6;279(17):1358-63.
179. Sbarbaro JA. Can we influence prescribing patterns? Clin Infect Dis 2001 Sep 15;33 Suppl 3:S240-4.
180. Antman EM, Lau J, Kupelnick B, Mosteller F, Chalmers TC. A comparison of results of metaanalyses of randomized control trials and recommendations of clinical experts: treatments for myocardial infarction. JAMA 1992 Jul 8;268(2):240-8.
181. Fulda TR, Lyles A, Pugh MC, Christensen DB. Current status of prospective drug utilization review. J Manag Care Pharm 2004;10(5):433.
182. Spooner CH, Pickard AS, Menon D. Drug utilization reviews of oral quinolone, cephalosporin, and macrolide use in nonacute care: A systematic review. Clin Ther 1999 Nov;21(11):1951-72.
183. Berger ML, Bingefors K, Hedblom EC, Pasjos CL, Torrance GW, editors. Health care cost, quality, and outcomes: ISPOR book of terms. Lawewnceville, NJ: International Society for Pharmacoeconomics and Outcomes Research, 2003.
184. Gregoire JP, Moisan J, Potvin L, Chabot I, Verreault R, Milot A. Effect of drug utilization reviews on the quality of in-hospital prescribing: A quasi-experimental study. BMC Health Serv Res 2006 Mar 14;6:33.
185. Hennessy S, Bilker WB, Zhou L, et al. Retrospective drug utilization review, prescribing errors, and clinical outcomes. JAMA 2003 Sep 17;290(11):1494-9.
186. Monane M. Improving prescribing patterns for the elderly through an online drug utilization review intervention: A system linking the physician, pharmacist, and computer. JAMA 1998;280(14):1249.
187. Wettermark B, Vlahovic-Palcevski V, Blix HS, Ronning M, Vander Stichele RH. Drug utilization review. In: Hartzema AG, Tilson HH, Chan KA, editors. Pharmacoepidemiology and Therapeutic Risk Management. Cincinnati, Ohio: Harvey Whitney Books Company, 2008:159-95.
188. Moore WJ, Gutermuth K, Pracht EE. Systemwide effects of medicaid retrospective drug utilization review programs. J Health Polit Policy Law 2000 Aug;25(4):653-88.
189. Spooner CH, Pickard AS, Menon D. Edmonton quality assessment tool for drug utilization reviews: EQUATDUR-2: The development of a scale to assess the methodological quality of a drug utilization review. Med Care 2000 Sep;38(9):948-58.
190. Every NR, Hochman J, Becker R, Kopecky S, Cannon CP. Critical pathways: A review. Committee on acute cardiac care, Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation 2000 Feb 1;101(4):4615.
191. Karuza J, Calkins E, Feather J, Hershey CO, Katz L, Majeroni B. Enhancing physician adoption of practice guidelines - dissemination of influenza vaccination guideline using a smallgroup consensus process. Arch Intern Med 1995;155(6):625.
192. Sommers LS, Sholtz R, Shepherd RM, Starkweather DB. Physician involvement in quality assurance. Med Care 1984;22(12):1115.
193. Wright J, Bibby J, Eastham J, et al. Multifaceted implementation of stroke prevention guidelines in primary care: Cluster-randomised evaluation of clinical and cost effectiveness. Qual Saf Health Care 2007 Feb;16(1):51-9.
194. Wright J, Harrison S, McGeorge M, et al. Improving the management and referral of patients with transient ischaemic attacks: A change strategy for a health community. Qual Saf Health Care 2006 Feb;15(1):9-12.
195. Wright J, Warren E, Reeves J, et al. Effectiveness of multifaceted implementation of guidelines in primary care. J Health Serv Res Policy 2003 Jul;8(3):142-8.
196. Cabana MD, Rand CS, Powe NR, et al. Why don't physicians follow clinical practice guidelines? A framework for improvement. JAMA 1999 Oct 20;282(15):1458-65.
197. Shojania KG, Grimshaw JM. Still no magic bullets: Pursuing more rigorous research in quality improvement. Am J Med 2004 Jun 1;116(11):778-80.
198. Berta W, Teare GF, Gilbart E, et al. The contingencies of organizational learning in long- term care: Factors that affect innovation adoption. Health Care Manage Rev 2005 OctDec;30(4):282-92.
199. Rashidian A, Russell I. Towards better prescribing – a model for implementing clinical guidelines in primary care organizations in the NHS. Clinical Governance: An International Journal 2003;8(1):26-32.
200. AGREE collaboration. http://www.agreecollaboration.org/ (Nov 11, 2008).
201. Network notes III: Communities of practice. www.chsrf.ca/networks (Nov 11, 2008).
202. Davis DA, Taylor-Vaisey A. Translating guidelines into practice: A systematic review of theoretic concepts, practical experience and research evidence in the adoption of clinical practice guidelines. CMAJ 1997;157(4):408-16.
203. Grol R, Wensing M, Eccles M, editors. Improving patient care: The implementation of change in clinical practice. Edinburgh: Elsevier Limited., 2005.
204. Graham ID, Beardall S, Carter AO, et al. What is the quality of drug therapy clinical practice guidelines in Canada? CMAJ 2001 Jul 24;165(2):157-63.
205. Davis D, Palda V, Drazin Y, Rogers J. Assessing and scaling the knowledge pyramid: The good-guideline guide. CMAJ 2006 Jan 31;174(3):337-8.
206. Dormuth CR, Maclure M, Bassett K, Jauca C, Whiteside C, Wright JM. Effect of periodic letters on evidence-based drug therapy on prescribing behaviour: A randomized trial. CMAJ 2004 Oct 26;171(9):1057-61.
207. Sargeant J, Curran V, Allen M, Jarvis-Selinger S, Ho K. Facilitating interpersonal interaction and learning online: Linking theory and practice. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2006 Spring;26(2):128-36.
208. Sargeant J, Curran V, Jarvis-Selinger S, et al. Interactive on-line continuing medical education: Physicians' perceptions and experiences. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2004 Fall;24(4):227-36.
209. Harris SB, Leiter LA, Webster-Bogaert S, Van DM, O'Neill C. Teleconferenced educational detailing: Diabetes education for primary care physicians. J Contin Educ Health Prof 2005 Spring;25(2):87-97.
210. Ho K, Cockalingam A, Best A, Walsh G, JarvisSelinger S, (Editors). Technology enabled knowledge translation workshop: Current best practices in innovation, evaluation, and future directions final report. March 27-28, 2003; Vancouver, B.C. University of British Columbia Continuing Medical Education; 2003.
211. Davis DA, Thomson MA, Oxman AD, Haynes RB. Changing physician performance. A systematic review of the effect of continuing medical education strategies. JAMA 1995 Sep 6;274(9):700-5.
212. Cox JL. Optimizing disease management at a health care system level: The rationale and methods of the improving cardiovascular outcomes in Nova Scotia (ICONS) study. Can J Cardiol 1999 Jul;15(7):787-96.
213. O'Brien MA, Freemantle N, Oxman AD, Wolf F, Davis DA, Herrin J. Continuing education meetings and workshops: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes (review). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2001;(2)(2):CD003030.
214. Haaijer-Ruskamp FM, Denig P. Impact of feedback and peer review on prescribing. Occas Pap R Coll Gen Pract 1995 Feb;(69):13-9.
215. Paulsen E, Fretheim A, Oxman AD. Local consensus processes: Effects on professional practice and health care outcomes (protocol). 2007 (Issue 1. Art. No.: CD003165. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD003165.pub3.).
Article Sidebar
Published
Dec 8, 2018
Article Details
How to Cite
S Sketris, I., Langille Ingram, E. M., & Lummis, H. L. (2018). STRATEGIC OPPORTUNITIES FOR EFFECTIVE OPTIMAL PRESCRIBING AND MEDICATION MANAGEMENT. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 16(1). Retrieved from https://jptcp.com/index.php/jptcp/article/view/289
Issue
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
All articles published in JPTCP are licensed under Copyright Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.